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PSYCH 101 > Week 5 Readings > Flashcards

Week 5 Readings Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the nervous system composed of (cells)?

A
  • two basic cell types: glial cells (aka glia) and neurons
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2
Q

What is the typical role of glial cells?

A
  • play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically
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3
Q

What is the ratio of glial cells to neurons?

A
  • 10:1
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4
Q

What do glial cells do? (5)

A
  • provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built
  • help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication
  • provides insulation to neurons
  • transports nutrients and waste products
  • mediate immune responses
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5
Q

What do neurons do?

A
  • serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of tasks of the nervous system
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6
Q

How many neurons do we have at birth and what is their role? (2)

A
  • 100 billion strong at birth

- central building blocks of the nervous system

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7
Q

what is the semipermeable membrane and what does it do? (2)

A
  • make up the outer surface of a neuron
  • allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules
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8
Q

what is the soma and what does it contain? (2)

A
  • cell body

- contains the nucleus of the neuron

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9
Q

dendrites (2)

A
  • branching extensions from the soma

- serve as input sites where signals are received from other neurons

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10
Q

nucleus

A
  • small information processor
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11
Q

axon

A
  • major extension of the soma
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12
Q

terminal button

A
  • axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles
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13
Q

synaptic vesicles

A
  • storage site for neurotransmitters
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14
Q

neurotransmitters

A
  • chemical messenger of the nervous system
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15
Q

where do the signals go after they enter through the dendrites?

A
  • transmitted electronically across soma and down the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons
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16
Q

what is the myelin sheath and what is it made up of? (2)

A
  • fatty substance that
    coat and insulate axons
  • made up of glial cells
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17
Q

what is the purpose of the myelin sheath? (2)

A
  • increases speed at which signals travel

- crucial for normal operation of neurons within the nervous system

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18
Q

multiple sclerosis (MS, 4)

  • what is it
  • what does this cause
  • symptoms
  • cure?
A
  • autoimmune disorder that involves large-scale loss of myelin sheath on axons throughout nervous system
  • interference in electrical signal prevents quick transmittal of information by neurons
  • symptoms include dizziness, fatigue, loss of motor control and sexual dysfunction
  • currently no cure
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19
Q

synapse

A
  • small gap between two neurons where communication occurs
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20
Q

receptors (2)

A
  • protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach

- vary in shape, with different shapes matching different neurotransmitters

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21
Q

in healthy individuals, how are neuronal signals transmitted? (2)

A
  • neuronal signals move rapidly down axon to the terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into synapse
  • neurotransmitters travel across synapse and bind with corresponding receptors on dendrite of an adjacent neuron
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22
Q

how do neurotransmitters know which receptor to bind to?

A
  • lock and key relationship: specific neurotransmitters fit specific receptors
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23
Q

how does a neuron exist in a fluid environment? (2)

A
  • surrounded by extracellular fluid

- contains intracellular fluid

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24
Q

membrane potential

A
  • difference in charge across the membrane which provides energy for signals
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25
Q

what is the role of the neuronal membrane?

A
  • keeps extra and intracellular fluid separate which keeps the fluids electronically different
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26
Q

what causes the electrical charges in cellular fluids? (2)

A
  • charged molecules (ions) dissolved in the fluids
  • neuronal membrane restricts movement of charged molecules and some charged particles tend to become more concentrated on inside or outside of cell
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27
Q

resting potential (3)

  • what is it
  • what do ions do
  • where do ions move after
A
  • state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals
  • ions line up on either side, ready to rush across membrane when neuron goes active and gates open
  • ions in high-concentration are ready to move to low concentration and positive ions are ready to move to areas of negative charge
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28
Q

What are the concentrations of sodium and potassium inside and outside the cell and how does this affect movement? (2)

A
  • sodium has higher [ ] outside the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell
  • potassium is more [ ] inside the cell, so it will tend to move out of the cell
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29
Q

How does the charge inside the cell affect sodium movement? (2)

A
  • inside of cell is slightly negatively charged compared to outside
  • provides additional force on sodium, causing it to move into the cell
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30
Q

threshold of excitation

A
  • level of charge in the membrane that causes neuron to become active
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31
Q

What happens after a neuron receives a signal and changes from the resting potential state? (3)

A
  • small pores open on the neuronal membrane, allowing sodium ions to move into the cell
  • influx of positive ions causes internal charge of cell to become more positive
  • charge reaches threshold of excitement and neuron becomes active, action potential begins
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32
Q

peak action potential

A
  • many pores open, causing a massive influx of sodium ions and a huge positive spike in membrane potential
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33
Q

What happens at the peak action potential?

A
  • sodium gates close and potassium gates open to let positively charged potassium ions leave
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34
Q

repolarization (2)

A
  • membrane potential returns to negative charge
  • at first, it hyperpolarizes, becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then levels off restoring resting potential
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35
Q

action potential (2)

A
  • electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon

- constituted by the positive spike

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36
Q

how does the electric signal move through the axon?

A
  • like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of sodium ions
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37
Q

all-or-none phenomenon(2)

A
  • phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach threshold of excitation
  • there is no in-between and no turning off the action potential once it starts
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38
Q

Explain traits of the action potential as a result of the all-or-none phenomenon. (2)

A
  • action potential is recreated/propagated at its full strength at every point along the axon
  • does not fade away as it travels down the axon
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39
Q

reuptake

A
  • neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it to clear up synapse
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40
Q

After signals are delivered, what happens to excess neurotransmitters in synapse?

A
  • drift away and are broken down into inactive fragments or are reabsorbed in reuptake
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41
Q

What does clearing the synapse do? (2)

A
  • provides clear “on” and “off” state between signals
  • regulates the production of neurotransmitter (full synaptic vesicles indicate no additional transmitters need to be produced)
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42
Q

biological perspective

A
  • view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems
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43
Q

In the biological perspective, what helps improve disorders?

A
  • psychotropic medications can help improve symptoms associated with disorders
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44
Q

psychotropic medications (2)

A
  • drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance
  • act as agonists or antagonists for a given neurotransmitter system
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45
Q

agonists

A
  • chemicals that mimic neurotransmitters at the receptor site, strengthening its effects
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46
Q

antagonists

A
  • block or impedes normal activity of neurotransmitter at the receptor
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47
Q

What are agonists and antagonists drugs used for?

A
  • prescribed to correct specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s condition
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48
Q

Parkinson’s disease and treatment (2)

A
  • progressive nervous system disorder associated with low levels of dopamine
  • dopamine agonists are used to mimic effects of dopamine by binding to dopamine receptors
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49
Q

Schizophrenia and treatment (2)

A
  • certain symptom are associated with overactive dopamine neurotransmission
  • antagonists for dopamine used as they block dopamine’s effects by binding to receptors without activating them
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50
Q

reuptake inhibitors

A
  • prevent unused neurotransmitters from being transported back to neuron
  • leaves more neurotransmitters in synapse for longer time, increasing its effects
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51
Q

depression and treatment (2)

A
  • consistently linked with reduced serotonin levels

- treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that prevent uptake and strengthen serotonin effects

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52
Q

What drug is similar to serotonin

A
  • LSD as it affects same neurons and receptors as serotonin
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53
Q

What are the downsides of psychotropic medications? (3)

A
  • not an instant solution and must be taken for several weeks to see improvement
  • many have significant negative side effects
  • individuals vary dramatically in how they respond to the drugs
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54
Q

What is done to improve chances of success when taking psychotropic drugs?

A
  • combine drug therapy and other forms of therapy (psychological and/or behavioural)
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55
Q

What two major subdivisions can the nervous system be divided into?

A
  • central nervous sytem (CNS)

- peripheral nervous sytem (PNS)

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56
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A
  • brain and spinal cord
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57
Q

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A
  • connects brain and spinal card to muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body
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58
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system made up of?

A
  • thick bundles of axons, called nerves
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59
Q

What does the PNS do?

A
  • carry messages back and forth between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body (everything outside CNS)
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60
Q

What are the 2 major subdivisions of the PNS? (2)

A
  • somatic nervous system

- autonomic nervous system

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61
Q

somatic nervous system (3)

  • role
  • associated with:
  • consists of:
A
  • relays sensory and motor information to and from CNS
  • associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary
  • consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons
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62
Q

autonomic nervous sytem

  • role
  • associated with:
A
  • controls our internal organs and glands

- associated with things outside realm of voluntary control

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63
Q

motor neurons

A
  • carry instructions from CNS to muscles

- are efferent fibers (moving away from)

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64
Q

sensory neurons

A
  • carry sensory information to the CNS

- afferent fibres (moving toward)

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65
Q

afferent

A
  • moving toward
66
Q

efferent

A
  • moving away
67
Q

What can the autonomic nervous system be divided into and how do they work together? (2)

A
  • sympathetic, parasympathetic nervous systems

- complementary function, operating in tandem to maintain homeostasis

68
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A
  • involved in preparing body for stress-related activities
69
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • associated with returning body to routine, day-to-day operations
70
Q

homeostasis

A
  • state of equilibrium where biological conditions are maintained at optimal levels
71
Q

when is the sympathetic nervous system activated and how did it come about? (2)

A
  • when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations
  • adapted from early ancestors for increasing chance of survival
72
Q

fight or flight response

A
  • activation of sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety
73
Q

what are some symptoms of the flight or fight response?

A
  • pupils dilate, heart race and blood pressure increase, bladder relaxes, liver releases glucose, and adrenaline surges bloodstream
74
Q

What are some negative consequences of persistent and repeated exposure to stressful situations that trigger the flight or fight response in the modern world? (2)

A
  • increase in susceptibility to heart disease

- impaired function of immune system

75
Q

when does the parasympathetic nervous system take over?

A
  • once threat has been resolved
76
Q

what symptoms are associated with activation of parasympathetic nervous system?

A
  • returning bodily functions to relaxed state: heart rate and blood pressure returns to normal, regain control of bladder, liver stores glucose in glycogen form
77
Q

which nervous system controls our ability to move our legs?

A
  • somatic
78
Q

spinal cord function (2)

A
  • routes messages to and from the brain

- has own system of automatic processes, called reflexes

79
Q

where is the top of the spinal cord and what is controlled there? (2)

A
  • top of spinal cord merges with brain stem

- basic processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion

80
Q

where does the spinal cord end?

A
  • just below rib cage
81
Q

How is the spinal card functionally organized?

A
  • into 30 segments that correspond with the vertebrae

- each segment is connected to a specific part of the body through peripheral nervous system

82
Q

How is the spinal cord involved with messages to the rest of the body? (2)

A
  • nerves branch out from the spine in each vertebrae
  • sensory nerves bring messages in and motor nerves send messages out to the muscles and organs; messages travel to and from the brain through every segment
83
Q

spinal reflexes (4)

  • what are they
  • 2 examples
  • how does it work
  • purpose
A
  • when some sensory messages are immediately acted on by spinal cord without any input from brain
  • withdrawal from heat or knee jerk
  • signal passes from sensory nerve to simple processing center, which initiates a motor command
  • allows body to react extraordinarily fast to save seconds that would occur from messages being sent to the brain and back
84
Q

how is the spinal cord protected?

A
  • bony vertebrae and cushioned in cerebrospinal fluid
85
Q

what can occur when the spinal cord is injured?

A
  • damage to a particular segment will cut off all lower segments connection to the brain causing paralysis
86
Q

cerebral cortex definition and its features

A
  • surface of brain

- uneven, characterized by distinctive patterns of folds or bumps (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

87
Q

gyrus

A
  • bump or ridge on cerebral cortex
88
Q

sulcus

A
  • depressions or grooves in cerebral cortex
89
Q

how can gyri and sulci help us?

A
  • form important landmarks that allow us to separate brain into functional centers
90
Q

longitudinal fissure

A
  • most prominent sulcus

- deep grove that separates brain into two hemispheres

91
Q

hemisphere

A
  • right or left half of the brain
92
Q

lateralization

A
  • concept that each hemisphere of brain is associated with specialized functions, mainly regarding language ability
93
Q

what side of the body does the left hemisphere control (and vice versa)?

A
  • right side of the body
94
Q

corpus callosum (2)

  • what is it
  • what does it consist of
  • function
A
  • thick band of neural fibers connecting brain’s two hemispheres
  • consists of 200 million axons
  • allows two hemispheres to communicate with each other and allows information being processed one one side of the brain to be shared with the other side
95
Q

how is severe epilepsy sometimes treated?

A
  • doctors elect to sever corpus callosum as means of controlling spread of seizures
96
Q

What behaviour do split-brain patients show? (3)

A
  • unable to name a picture show in patient’s left hand because information is only available to largely nonverbal right hemisphere
  • still able to recreate picture with their left hand as that is controlled by the right hemisphere
  • when more verbal left hemisphere sees picture that is hand drawn, patient is able to name it
97
Q

How do we know information about functions of different areas of the brain?

A
  • studying changes in behaviour and ability of individuals who have suffered damage to the brain
98
Q

stroke

A
  • caused by interruption of blood flow to a region in the brain, causes loss of brain function in affected region
99
Q

What does the front portion of the right hemisphere contain? (2)

A
  • main motor centers are located at front of head, in frontal lobe
  • another region in the frontal lobe, the prefrontal cortex, is associated with judgement, reasoning, and impulse control
100
Q

forebrain

A
  • largest part of the brain, containing cerebral cortex, thalamus, and limbic system, among other structures
101
Q

cerebral cortex (2)

  • what is it
  • associated with:
A
  • outer surface of the brain which can be subdivided into four lobes with different functions
  • associated with higher level processes
102
Q

What are some higher level processes associated with cerebral cortex? (6)

A
  • consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory
103
Q

What are the four lobes of the brain? (4)

A
  • frontal
  • parietal
  • temporal
  • occipital
104
Q

frontal lobe (3)

  • location
  • involved in:
  • contains:
A
  • located at forward part of brain, extending back to a fissure known as central sulcus
  • involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language
  • contains motor cortex, prefrontal cortex and Broca’s area
105
Q

motor cortex

A
  • involved in planning and coordinating movement
106
Q

prefrontal cortex

A
  • responsible for higher level cognitive functioning
107
Q

Bronca’s area

A
  • essential for language production
108
Q

What happens if you damage Bronca’s area? (3)

A
  • great difficulty producing language in any form and loss of ability to speak
  • although nothing is wrong with her mouth or vocal cords, she is unable to form words
  • can follow directions but can’t respond verbally, and can no longer read or write
109
Q

What happened to Phineas Gage?

A
  • when using explosives to remove rock, iron rod created a spark and caused rode to explode into Gage’s face
  • Gage remained conscious and was able to walk and speak despite brain injuries
110
Q

What were the consequences of Gage’s accident? (2)

A
  • personality change: Gage was once a well-mannered, soft-spoken man but began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after accident
  • consistent with loss of impulse control, a frontal lobe function
111
Q

What might be the reason Gage changed after his accident? (2)

A
  • front lobe damage and rod’s path also identified probable damage to pathways between frontal lobe and other brain structures, including limbic system
  • with connections between planning functions of frontal lobe and emotional processes of limbic system severed, Gage had difficulty controlling emotional impulses
112
Q

Is it possible that Gage’s case was falsified?

A
  • yes, evidence suggesting that dramatic changes in Gage’s personality were exaggerated and embellished to support debate over localization in the brain exists
113
Q

parietal lobe (3)

  • location
  • involved in:
  • contains:
A
  • located immediately behind frontal lobe
  • involved in processing information from body’s senses
  • contains somatosensory cortex
114
Q

somatosensory cortex (2)

  • function
  • organization
A
  • essential for precessing sensory information from across body such as touch, temperature, and pain
  • organized topographically so that spatial relationships that exist in body are maintained on surface or cortex
115
Q

temporal lobe (3)
- location
- associated with:
contains:

A
  • located on side of head, near temples
  • associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language
  • contains auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area
116
Q

auditory cortex

A
  • main area responsible for processing auditory information
117
Q

Wernicke’s area

A
  • important for speech comprehension
118
Q

What happens when Wernicke’s area is damaged?

A
  • can produce sensible language, but unable to understand it
119
Q

occipital lobe (3)

  • location
  • contains:
  • organizational structure
A
  • located at very back of brain
  • contains primary visual cortex
  • organized retinotopically so there is close relationship between position of an object in a person’s visual field and positions of object’s representation on the cortex
120
Q

primary visual cortex

A
  • responsible for interpreting visual information
121
Q

thalamus (2)

A
  • sensory relay for brain

- all senses except smell are routed through thalamus before being directed to other areas of brain for processing

122
Q

limbic system (2)

  • function
  • consists of:
A
  • involved in processing emotion and memory

- made up of a number of different structures, but three most important are hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

123
Q

What system is smell projected through and how does this change it compared to other senses? (2)

A
  • smell is projected through limbic system

- smell can evoke emotional responses in way that other sensory modalities cannot

124
Q

hippocampus

A
  • essential structure for learning and memory
125
Q

amygdala

A
  • involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories
126
Q

hypothalamus (3)

A
  • regulates number of homeostatic processes, including regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure
  • serves as interface between nervous system and endocrine system
  • regulates sexual motivation and behaviour
127
Q

What happened to Henry Gustav Molaison and what were the consequences? (2)

A
  • due to severe seizures, Molaison underwent brain surgery to remove hippocampus and amygdala
  • lost ability to form any type of new memories and taught scientists the role the hippocampus plays in consolidation of new learning into explicit memory
128
Q

midbrain (2)

  • location
  • contains:
A
  • division of brain located between forebrain and hindbrain

- contains reticular formation, substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA

129
Q

reticular formation (2)

  • location
  • function
A
  • centred in midbrain, but extends up into forebrain and down into hindbrain
  • important in regulating sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity
130
Q

substantia nigra (2)

A
  • midbrain structure where dopamine is produced

- involved in control of movement

131
Q

ventral tegmental area (VTA) (2)

A
  • midbrain structure where dopamine is produced

- associated with mood, reward and addiction

132
Q

hindbrain (2)

  • location
  • contains:
A
  • located at back of head and looks like extension of spinal cord
  • contains medulla, pons, and cerebellum
133
Q

medulla

A
  • controls automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
134
Q

pons (3)

  • means…
  • structural function
  • function
A
  • means “bridge”
  • serves to connect brain and spinal cord
  • involved in regulating brain activity during sleep
135
Q

brainstem

A
  • medulla, pons, and midbrain
136
Q

cerebellum (2)

A
  • receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structure in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills
  • important for processing procedural memories (memories involved in learning and remembering tasks)
137
Q

brain imaging

A
  • a way to find out about functions of the brain using radiation, magnetic fields or electrical activity within the brain
138
Q

computerized tomography (CT) scan (3)

  • what is it
  • how it works
  • often usage
A
  • involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person’s body or brain
  • x-ray passes through tissues of different densities at different rates, allowing computer to construct overall image of area being scanned
  • often used to determine whether someone has a tumor, or significant brain atrophy
139
Q

positron emission tomography (PET) (2)

  • what is it
  • how it works
A
  • scans create pictures of living, active brain
  • patient drinks or is injected with mildly radioactive substance called tracer; computer monitors tracer in bloodstream and creates rough map of active and inactive areas of brain during given behaviour
140
Q

What are the downsides of PET (3)

A
  • scans show little detail
  • unable to pinpoint events precisely in time
  • require brain to be exposed to radiation
141
Q

Why is using both CT and PET useful? (2)

A
  • scans allow better imaging of activity of neurotransmitter receptors and open new avenues in schizophrenia research
  • CT contributes clear images of brain structures and PET shows brain’s activity
142
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (3)

  • how does it work
  • how is it displayed
A
  • person is placed inside machine that generates strong magnetic field; causes hydrogen atoms in body’s cell to move and when field is turned off, hydrogen atoms emit electromagnetic signals as they return to original positions
  • tissues of different densities give off different signals which a computer interprets and displays on a monitor
143
Q

functional magnetic resonance imagine (fMRI) (2)

A
  • operates on same principles as MRIs but shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels
  • provides more detail on brain structure and better accuracy in time than possible in PET scans
144
Q

What are MRI and fMRIs used for? (2)

A
  • often used to compare brains of healthy individuals to brains diagnosed with psychological disorders because of high level of detail
  • helps determine what structural and functional differences exist between these populations
145
Q

electroencephalography (EEG) (3)

  • what is it
  • what does it look like
  • helpful for…
A
  • recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrode on the scalp
  • shown as brainwaves, showing frequency and amplitude with accuracy in milliseconds
  • especially helpful to researched studying sleep patterns along individuals with sleep disorders
146
Q

endocrine system

A
  • series of glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones
147
Q

hormones (3)

  • what is it
  • how does it work
  • attributes
A
  • chemical messenger released by endocrine glands that must bind to receptor in order to send signal
  • released in bloodstream and travel throughout body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for them
  • slower to take effect but more long lasting
148
Q

What are the functions of hormones and how are they controlled? (2)

A
  • involved in regulating bodily functions
  • ultimately controlled through interactions between hypothalamus ( in central nervous system) and pituitary gland (in endocrine system)
149
Q

What causes imbalances in hormones?

A
  • related to a number of disorders
150
Q

where is the pituitary gland and what is it referred to as? (2)

A
  • descends from hypothalamus at base of brain and acts in close association with it
  • often referred to as “master gland” because its messenger hormones control all other glands in endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the hypothalamus
151
Q

What does the pituitary gland secrete? (4)

A
  • messenger hormones
  • growth hormone
  • endorphins for pain relief
  • number of key hormone that regulate fluid levels in body
152
Q

thyroid gland (2)

  • location
  • function
A
  • located in neck

- releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite including thyroxine

153
Q

hyperthyroidism/Grave’s disease

A
  • thyroid secretes too much of hormone thyroxine causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss
154
Q

hypothyroidism

A
  • reduced hormones cause tiredness and coldness
155
Q

adrenal glands (2)

  • location
  • function
A
  • sit atop our kidneys

- secrete hormones involved in stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

156
Q

pancreas (2)

A
  • internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon
  • essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon)
157
Q

diabetes and treatment (2)

A
  • patient does not produce insulin
  • must take medications to stimulate or replace insulin production and must closely control the amount of sugar and carbs they consume
158
Q

gonads (2)

A
  • secrete sexual hormones important to reproduction

- mediate both sexual motivation and behaviour

159
Q

female gonads and what they secrete (2)

A
  • ovaries

- secrete estrogen and progesterone

160
Q

male gonads and what they secrete (2)

A
  • testes

- secrete androgens (like testosterone)

PSYCH 101 (5 decks)

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