WEEK 4

Question 1

Chunk

Answer 1

The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.

Question 2

Classical conditioning

Answer 2

Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.

Question 3

Encoding

Answer 3

The pact of putting information into memory.

Question 4

Habituation

Answer 4

Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.

Question 5

Implicit learning

Answer 5

Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.

Question 6

Implicit memory

Answer 6

A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.

Question 7

Incidental learning

Answer 7

Any type of learning that happens without intent

Question 8

Intentional learning

Answer 8

Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.

Question 9

Metacognition

Answer 9

Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.

Question 10

Nonassociative learning

Answer 10

Occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour.

Question 11

Operant conditioning

Answer 11

Describes stimulus-response associative learning.

Question 12

Perceptual learning

Answer 12

Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience.

Question 13

Sensitization

Answer 13

Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure.

Question 14

Transfer-appropriate processing

Answer 14

A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.

Question 15

Working memory

Answer 15

The form of memory we use to hold information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.

Question 16

Blocking

Answer 16

In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.

Question 17

Categorize

Answer 17

To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.

Question 18

Classical conditioning

Answer 18

The procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus (the conditions stimulus) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The result is that the conditioned stimulus begins too elect a conditioned response. Classical conditioning is nowadays considered important as both a behavioural phenomenon and as a method to study simple associative learning. Same a Pavlovian conditioning.

Question 19

Conditioned compensatory response

Answer 19

In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as the unconditioned stimuli.

Question 20

Conditioned response (CR)

Answer 20

The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.

Question 21

Conditioned stimulus

Answer 21

An initially neutral stimulus that elicits and conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Question 22

Context

Answer 22

Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs, For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs and mood states. It can also be provided by a specific period in time - the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context”.

Question 23

Discriminative stimulus

Answer 23

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.

Question 24

Extinction

Answer 24

Decrease up the strength of a learned behaviour that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behaviour is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviours that have been reduced in strength throughout extinction are said to be “extinguished”.

Question 25

Fear conditioning

Answer 25

A type of classical or Pavlovian condition in which the CS is associated with an aversive US, such as foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.

Question 26

Goal-directed behaviour

Answer 26

Instrumental behaviour that is influence by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behaviour and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.

Question 27

Habit

Answer 27

Instrumental behaviour that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influence by the animals knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.

Question 28

Instrumental conditioning

Answer 28

Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviours and their consequences. Also known as operant conditioning.

Question 29

Law of effect

Answer 29

The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effect. responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviours are lawfully controlled by their consequences.

Question 30

Observational learning

Answer 30

Learning by observing the behaviour of others.

Question 31

Operant

Answer 31

A behaviour that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.

Question 32

Prediction error

Answer 32

When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial. Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning. As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.

Question 33

Preparedness

Answer 33

The idea that an organisms evolutionary history can make it east to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and nor circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.

Question 34

Punisher

Answer 34

A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behaviour when it is made a consequence of the behaviour.

Question 35

Quantitative law of effect

Answer 35

A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviours. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviours.

Question 36

Reinforcer

Answer 36

Any consequence of a behaviour that strengthens the behaviour of increases the likelihood that it will be preformed again.

Question 37

Reinforcers devaluation effect

Answer 37

The finding than an animal will stop performing and instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.

Question 38

Renewal effect

Answer 38

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changes after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrument conditioning.

Question 39

Social Learning Theory

Answer 39

The theory that one poke can learn new responses and behaviours by observing the behaviour of others.

Question 40

Social models

Answer 40

Authorities that are the targets for observation and who models behaviours.

Question 41

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 41

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.

Question 42

Stimulus control

Answer 42

When an operant behaviour is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.

Question 43

Taste aversion learning

Answer 43

The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject - and dislike - that taste in the future.

Question 44

Unconditioned response (UR)

Answer 44

In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before conditioning.

Question 45

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Answer 45

In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs.

Question 46

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 46

Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.

Question 47

Accommodation

Answer 47

Changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience.

Question 48

Appraisal structure

Answer 48

The set of appraisals that bring about an emotion.

Question 49

Appraisal theories

Answer 49

Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.

Question 50

Awe

Answer 50

An emotion associated with profound, mooning experiences. Awe comes about when people encounter an event that is vase (far from normal) but that can by accommodated in existing knowledge.

Question 51

Chills

Answer 51

A feeling of goosebumps, usually on the arms, scalp, and neck, that is often experienced during moments of awe.

Question 52

Confusion

Answer 52

An emotion associated with conflicting and contrary information, such as when people appraise an event as unfamiliar and as hard to understand. Confusion motivates people to work through the perplexing information and thus fosters deeper learning.

Question 53

Coping potential

Answer 53

People’s beliefs about their ability to handle challenges.

Question 54

Facial expressions

Answer 54

Part of the expressive component of emotions, facial expressions of emotion communicate inner feelings to others.

Question 55

Functionalist theories of emotion

Answer 55

Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.

Question 56

Impasse-driven learning

Answer 56

An approach to instruction that motivates active learning by having learners work through perplexing barriers.

Question 57

Interest

Answer 57

An emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span.

Question 58

Intrinsically motivated learning

Answer 58

Learning that is “for its own sake” - such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder - instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.

Question 59

Knowledge emotions

Answer 59

A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.

Question 60

Openness to experience

Answer 60

One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.

Question 61

Surprise

Answer 61

An emotion rooted in expectancy violation that orients people toward the unexpected event.

Question 62

Trait curiosity

Answer 62

Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.