Week 33 /Nervous System 4 Flashcards
Q: What are the three main areas of the brain?
A: The hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
Q: What structures make up the hindbrain?
A: The cerebellum, the pons, and the medulla.
Q: What is the brainstem composed of?
A: The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata (sometimes only the pons and medulla oblongata).
Q: Where are all cranial nerves situated?
A: In the brainstem.
Q: Where is the medulla oblongata located?
A: The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain, located between the pons and the spinal cord. It is continuous with the spinal cord.
Q: What are the functions of the medulla oblongata?
A: The medulla oblongata controls:
Breathing
Maintaining steady heart rate and blood pressure
Swallowing, vomiting
Urination and defecation
Coordinating lifesaving reflexes
Q: What important centers are located in the medulla?
A: The medulla contains:
Cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers.
Chemoreceptor trigger zone, which communicates with other structures to initiate vomiting
Q: What is the main function of the pons?
A: The pons connects the cerebral cortex with the medulla oblongata and helps transfer messages between various parts of the brain and spinal cord.
Q: What sensory and motor functions does the pons serve?
A: The pons is involved in motor control and sensory analysis, acting as a sensory/motor relay center.
Q: What cranial nerve nuclei are located in the pons?
A: The pons contains the nuclei for:
Trigeminal nerve (sensory nucleus, V)
Abducens nucleus (VI)
Facial nerve nucleus (VII)
Vestibulocochlear nuclei (VIII)
Q: How does the pons assist with the respiratory system?
A: The pons helps regulate the respiratory system by assisting the medulla oblongata in controlling breathing rate.
Q: What autonomic body functions does the pons help control?
A: The pons helps control autonomic body functions such as regulating the heart, stomach, and intestines.
Q: What is the role of the raphe nuclei in the pons?
A: The raphe nuclei in the pons are the principal site for the synthesis of serotonin, which plays a role in mood regulation, sleep, and arousal.
Q: How does the pons contribute to sleep-wake cycles?
A: Chemicals produced in the pons help maintain the sleep-wake cycle, and it activates inhibitory centers in the medulla to inhibit movement during sleep.
Q: What is the primary role of the cerebellum?
A: The cerebellum is responsible for sensorimotor functions, playing a key role in regulating motor movement and balance control.
Q: What happens if the cerebellum is damaged?
A: Damage to the cerebellum can result in conditions like cerebral palsy, which affect movement and coordination.
Q: How does the cerebellum contribute to motor control?
A: The cerebellum coordinates gait, maintains posture, controls muscle tone, and regulates voluntary muscle activity, but it cannot initiate muscle contraction.
Q: What are the key nuclei found in the midbrain?
A: The key nuclei in the midbrain include the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, periaqueductal gray, raphe nuclei, and locus coeruleus.
Q: What role does the substantia nigra play, and how is it related to Parkinson’s disease?
A: The substantia nigra produces dopamine (DA). Its degeneration is linked to Parkinson’s disease, which is characterized by motor dysfunction due to a lack of dopamine.
Q: What is the function of the ventral tegmental area (VTA)?
A: The VTA is involved in the release of dopamine (DA) and plays a significant role in reward and addiction.
Q: What neurotransmitters are involved in the periaqueductal gray?
A: The periaqueductal gray is involved in opioid and GABA signaling and plays a role in pain modulation.
Q: What is the significance of the raphe nuclei in the brain?
A: The raphe nuclei, located in the medulla, pons, and midbrain, are responsible for producing serotonin (5-HT), which is targeted by antidepressants.
Q: What does the locus coeruleus do?
A: The locus coeruleus, located in the pons, produces noradrenaline (NA) and is involved in regulating arousal and the body’s stress response.
Q: What important functions does the midbrain control?
A: The midbrain controls important functions such as the visual and auditory systems and is crucial for hearing and sight. It also plays a role in eye movement.
Q: What role do the red nucleus and substantia nigra play in the midbrain?
A: The red nucleus and substantia nigra are involved in the control of body movement, with the substantia nigra specifically playing a key role in motor control via dopamine production.
Q: How does the midbrain contribute to visual and auditory processing?
A: The midbrain houses structures like the superior colliculus (involved in visual processing) and the inferior colliculus (involved in auditory processing), both of which help integrate sensory information for movement and reflexes.
Q: What are the two main sections of the forebrain?
A: The forebrain is split into two sections:
The telencephalon
The diencephalon
Q: What structures does the telencephalon consist of?
A: The telencephalon consists of the two cerebral hemispheres of the cerebrum and their interconnections.
Q: What are the key structures of the diencephalon?
A: The diencephalon contains two important structures:
The thalamus
The hypothalamus
Q: How is the hypothalamus connected to the body?
A: The hypothalamus connects with the pituitary gland, which is involved in regulating hormones and homeostasis.
Q: What is the cerebral cortex?
A: The cerebral cortex is the “gray matter” of the brain and is where most information processing occurs.
Q: What is the cerebral cortex made up of?
A: The cerebral cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer layer of the cerebrum (brain).
Q: What are the bumps or bulges on the cortex called in higher mammals?
A: The bumps or bulges on the cortex are called gyri (singular: gyrus).
Q: What are the grooves on the cortex called in higher mammals?
A: The grooves on the cortex are called sulci (singular: sulcus).
Q: How many lobes are there in the cerebral cortex?
A: There are 4 lobes in the cerebral cortex:
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Q: Where is the frontal lobe located and what are its functions?
A: The frontal lobe is located in front of the central sulcus. It is concerned with reasoning, planning, parts of speech and movement (motor cortex), emotions, and problem-solving.
Q: Where is the parietal lobe located and what is its primary function?
A: The parietal lobe is located behind the central sulcus. It is responsible for the perception of stimuli related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
Q: Where is the occipital lobe located and what is its role?
A: The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain, behind the parietal and temporal lobes. It is concerned with many aspects of vision.
Q: Where is the temporal lobe located and what does it control?
A: The temporal lobe is located below the lateral fissure. It is responsible for the perception and recognition of auditory stimuli (hearing) and memory (via the hippocampus).
Q: What is the limbic system responsible for?
A: The limbic system controls emotion, motivation, and emotional association with memory.
Q: Which structures are included in the limbic system?
A: The limbic system includes:
Hippocampus
Cingulate cortex
Mammillary bodies
Amygdala
Medial Septum
Diagonal Band of Broca (MS-DBB)
Q: Where is the hippocampus located?
Q: What type of matter predominantly makes up the hippocampus?
Q: What is the primary function of the hippocampus?
Q: In which disease is the hippocampus one of the first regions affected?
A: The hippocampus is located in the medial temporal lobe of the forebrain.
A: The hippocampus consists mainly of grey matter.
A: The hippocampus is associated with short-term and long-term memory.
A: The hippocampus is one of the first regions affected in Alzheimer’s Disease.
Q: Where are the basal forebrain nuclei (BFN) located?
A: The basal forebrain nuclei (BFN) are situated in front of and below the striatum in the forebrain.
Q: Which structures are included in the basal forebrain nuclei (BFN)?
A: The BFN include:
Nucleus basalis of Meynert
Medial septal nucleus
Diagonal band nuclei
Q: What type of neurons do BFN neurons project?
A: BFN neurons project cholinergic neurons.
Q: Which areas do the cholinergic neurons from the BFN project to?
A: The cholinergic neurons from the BFN project to:
Cerebral cortex
Hippocampal formation
Q: What condition is the basal forebrain nuclei (BFN) linked to?
A: The BFN is linked to Alzheimer’s disease.
Q: What is the cingulate gyrus?
A: The cingulate gyrus is a curved fold covering the corpus callosum, divided into anterior and posterior parts.
Q: What are the functions of the anterior cingulate gyrus?
A: The anterior cingulate gyrus is involved in:
Processing emotions
Behavior regulation
Regulating autonomic motor function
Q: How is the anterior cingulate gyrus divided?
A: The anterior cingulate gyrus is divided into dorsal and ventral sections.
Q: How does the posterior cingulate gyrus contribute to brain functions?
A: The posterior cingulate gyrus is involved in:
Movement
Spatial orientation
Navigation
Q: What is observed in the cingulate cortex in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)?
A: In PTSD, there is low neural activity and few neurons in the cingulate cortex.
Q: Where is the amygdala located in the brain?
A: The amygdala is located anterior to the hippocampus.
Q: What is the main function of the amygdala?
A: The amygdala is responsible for emotional processing and is associated with conditioned learning, especially fear, anger, and rage.
Q: What disorders and conditions is the amygdala linked to?
A: The amygdala is linked to conditions such as:
Anxiety
Autism
Depression
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Phobias
Binge drinking
Q: What is the role of the olfactory bulb?
A: The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain and sends it to be processed in the amygdala, the olfactory cortex, and the hippocampus.
Q: Where is the thalamus located in the brain?
A: The thalamus consists of two large ovoid masses of gray matter situated in the posterior part of the forebrain.
Q: What are the main functions of the thalamus?
A: The thalamus is involved in:
Relaying sensory signals (except smell) and motor signals to the cerebral cortex
Control of muscular movements through its connections with the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex
Regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness
Q: What can damage to the thalamus lead to?
A: Damage to the thalamus can lead to permanent coma.
Q: What is the role of the hypothalamus in hormone regulation?
A: The hypothalamus regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary gland, playing a key role in endocrine function.
Q: How does the hypothalamus contribute to homeostasis?
A: The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis by exerting control over the pituitary gland, which influences various physiological processes.
Q: Where is the pituitary gland located?
A: The pituitary gland is a small, pea-sized gland located below the hypothalamus.
Q: What types of sensations and behaviors does the hypothalamus regulate?
A: The hypothalamus regulates sensations such as hunger, thirst, temperature, and libido, and controls motivated behaviors such as Fighting, Fleeing, Feeding, and Sex.
Q: What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland?
A: The anterior pituitary gland releases:
Growth hormone (GH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Prolactin
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Q: What hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland?
A: The posterior pituitary gland releases:
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as Vasopressin
Q: Where is the pineal gland located?
A: The pineal gland is a small endocrine gland located in the epithalamus, between the two cerebral hemispheres.
Q: What hormone does the pineal gland produce?
A: The pineal gland produces melatonin.
Q: What functions does melatonin affect?
A: Melatonin affects:
Wake/sleep patterns
Seasonal functions
Sexual development
