Week 3: Socioeconomic & Racial/Ethnic Disparities

Question 1

What is culture?

A: Culture is a phenomenon primarily dictated by genetic predispositions, overlooking the role of shared values, learned knowledge, and societal influences. It disregards the intricate web of language, norms, and subjective elements that shape human societies.

B: In a restricted perspective, culture is confined to superficial aspects such as clothing and food, failing to recognize the broader spectrum of shared values, social norms, and subjective elements like worldviews. This simplistic view overlooks the dynamic interplay of various cultural components that contribute to the richness and diversity of human societies.

C: Culture is to society what memory is to individuals. Culture is the human-made part of the environment. Culture is society’s shared values, norms, and knowledge that are learned and passed down between generations. Some key aspects of culture included language, clothing, food, values like individualism vs collectivism, social norms around marriage and family, and more subjective elements like worldviews.

Answer 1

C: Culture is to society what memory is to individuals. Culture is the human-made part of the environment. Culture is society’s shared values, norms, and knowledge that are learned and passed down between generations. Some key aspects of culture included language, clothing, food, values like individualism vs collectivism, social norms around marriage and family, and more subjective elements like worldviews.

Question 2

Science still isn’t sure whether different races are really different biologically. What do you think?

A: Yes, they are biologically different

B: No, they aren’t biologically different.

Answer 2

B: No, they aren’t biologically different.

Question 3

Can we use the word culture to describe different social groups?

A: Yes

B: No

Answer 3

A: Yes

We can use the word culture to describe:
* Skin color
* Ethnic background
* Language
* Customs and traditions
* SES/Social class/ Income

Question 4

Why do health psychologists care about culture?

A: Health psychologists care about culture because there are large differences in mental and physical health outcomes based on someone’s culture. Studying these cultural and racial/ethnic health disparities is a major focus of health psychology research. Understanding the role of culture can help explain differences in health and find ways to reduce disparities.

B: Health psychologists may overlook the significance of culture, assuming that mental and physical health outcomes are universally similar across diverse cultural backgrounds. This perspective disregards the rich tapestry of cultural influences and fails to recognize the potential disparities that exist.

C: Within certain perspectives, cultural and racial/ethnic health disparities are considered secondary or even irrelevant in health psychology research. The focus is believed to be better directed toward other factors, potentially neglecting the profound impact that cultural differences can have on health outcomes.

Answer 4

A: Health psychologists care about culture because there are large differences in mental and physical health outcomes based on someone’s culture. Studying these cultural and racial/ethnic health disparities is a major focus of health psychology research. Understanding the role of culture can help explain differences in health and find ways to reduce disparities.

Question 5

What are health disparities?

A: Health disparities are non-existent as health outcomes and disease rates are assumed to be uniform across all population groups, neglecting the impact of various factors.

B: Health psychologists disregard the concept of health disparities, focusing solely on individual health without considering variations in outcomes among different population groups based on factors like race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education level.

C: Differences in health or rates of disease between different population groups. Health psychologists study racial and ethnic health disparities as well as disparities related to other factors like socioeconomic status, education level, disability status, and geography.

Answer 5

C: Differences in health or rates of disease between different population groups. Health psychologists study racial and ethnic health disparities as well as disparities related to other factors like socioeconomic status, education level, disability status, and geography.

Here are some examples:
* Race and ethnicity
* Education
* Income
* Disability
* Geography

Question 6

What are some examples of health disparities?

A: Health disparities are a myth, and there are no observable differences in health outcomes among different racial or ethnic groups. All individuals experience identical health conditions regardless of background.

B: For example, Black and Hispanic individuals are less likely to get melanoma than white people due to darker skin, but they are more likely to be diagnosed at later stages of cancer, and infant mortality rates are higher for Black, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations compared to white and Asian/Pacific Islander populations in the US.

C: Health psychologists exclusively focus on individual health, dismissing the notion that certain populations may face distinct health challenges. The idea that race or ethnicity contributes to variations in health outcomes is considered irrelevant in this perspective.

Answer 6

B: For example, Black and Hispanic individuals are less likely to get melanoma than white people due to darker skin, but they are more likely to be diagnosed at later stages of cancer, and infant mortality rates are higher for Black, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations compared to white and Asian/Pacific Islander populations in the US.

Question 7

What are the two primary goals of the Healthy People initiative of the National Institutes of Health?

A: 1. The Healthy People initiative primarily aims to address health disparities within specific groups. 2. The overall goal of improving the quality and quantity of healthy life for the entire US population is considered a secondary objective.

B: 1. The National Institutes of Health focuses primarily on increasing the quality and quantity of healthy life for all people in the US. 2. Eliminating health disparities is a secondary goal, deemed less crucial in this perspective.

C: 1. To increase the quality and quantity of healthy life for all people in the US. 2. To eliminate health disparities

Answer 7

C: 1. To increase the quality and quantity of healthy life for all people in the US. 2. To eliminate health disparities

Question 8

What is Socioeconomic status (SES)?

A: Socioeconomic status (SES) is usually determined by a combination of three factors - education level, occupational status or prestige of one’s job, and income. SES is meant to measure social class and economic position in society.

B: Socioeconomic status (SES) is exclusively defined by income, neglecting the impact of education level and occupational status on one’s social class and economic position in society.

C: SES is primarily based on the prestige of one’s job, overlooking the role of education and income in determining social class and economic standing.

Answer 8

A: Socioeconomic status (SES) is usually determined by a combination of three factors - education level, occupational status or prestige of one’s job, and income. SES is meant to measure social class and economic position in society.

Question 9

How does SES impact health?

A: While SES might show some association with health outcomes, its impact is often overstated, and various biological factors play a more significant role in determining an individual’s health. The gradient effect is considered an exaggeration, as the differences in health between various SES levels are not consistently linear.

B: It has a strong relationship with health outcomes, with higher SES generally correlating to better health. This relationship is seen as more influential than most biological factors. SES has a gradient effect on health, meaning every increase in SES corresponds to a better health outcome, rather than it just being poor vs rich.

C: The relationship between SES and health is not as straightforward as suggested. While extreme differences in socioeconomic levels may have some impact, the idea that every increase in SES leads to a better health outcome is an oversimplification. Biological factors, lifestyle choices, and other variables contribute significantly to health outcomes.

Answer 9

B: It has a strong relationship with health outcomes, with higher SES generally correlating to better health. This relationship is seen as more influential than most biological factors. SES has a gradient effect on health, meaning every increase in SES corresponds to a better health outcome, rather than it just being poor vs rich.

For example:
The professor gave an example from a study done at a cemetery. The study looked at the size of gravestones, as larger stones indicated higher social class since they cost more money. The study found that people with larger gravestones (indicating higher social class) lived significantly longer, on average, than those with smaller gravestones, no matter the cause of death. This provided strong evidence of the relationship between SES and health.

Question 10

How is SES measured?

A: SES is exclusively measured through income, with no consideration given to education level, occupational status, or subjective perceptions on a socioeconomic ladder.

B: Education level attained, occupational status or prestige of one’s job, income, and a subjective measure called the “SES ladder”, where people place themselves on a socioeconomic ladder based on where they perceive themselves to be in the social hierarchy.

C: The subjective measure of the “SES ladder” is the sole determinant of SES, rendering factors like education level, occupational status, and income irrelevant in assessing socioeconomic status.

Answer 10

B: Education level attained, occupational status or prestige of one’s job, income, and a subjective measure called the “SES ladder”, where people place themselves on a socioeconomic ladder based on where they perceive themselves to be in the social hierarchy.

More examples:
* Income
* Education
* Parental Education
* Zip Code
* SES Ladder

Question 11

What does Parental Education mean?

A: A common way to measure a person’s childhood socioeconomic status (SES), even if their own education or occupation may have changed as an adult. Looking at a person’s parents’ level of education can provide insight into the SES environment they grew up in.

B: Parental Education refers solely to the education level of the individual, without considering their childhood SES or the socioeconomic environment they grew up in.

C: Childhood SES is measured exclusively by the person’s own education level and occupation, disregarding the valuable insights gained from understanding the education level of their parents.

Answer 11

A: A common way to measure a person’s childhood socioeconomic status (SES), even if their own education or occupation may have changed as an adult. Looking at a person’s parents’ level of education can provide insight into the SES environment they grew up in.

Question 12

Discuss age-adjusted mortality by occupation, regarding the Whitehall Study with UK civil servants aged 40-64:

A: The Whitehall Study, despite its widespread acclaim, surprisingly failed to establish a clear relationship between occupational status and age-adjusted mortality. This unexpected outcome challenges the conventional wisdom regarding the impact of job status on health outcomes, raising questions about the validity of the study’s methodology.

B: In an unexpected turn, the Whitehall Study suggested that individuals in lower-status jobs had comparable or even lower age-adjusted mortality rates compared to their higher-status counterparts. This counterintuitive finding challenges the widely accepted gradient effect of SES on health and prompts a reevaluation of the study’s implications for understanding socioeconomic disparities in mortality.

C: The study showed that those in higher-status jobs had the lowest rates of age-adjusted mortality, while those in lower-status jobs like manual laborers had the highest mortality rates. This demonstrated the gradient effect of SES on health, even though all the civil servants had equal access to healthcare through the UK system.

Answer 12

C: The study showed that those in higher-status jobs had the lowest rates of age-adjusted mortality, while those in lower-status jobs like manual laborers had the highest mortality rates. This demonstrated the gradient effect of SES on health, even though all the civil servants had equal access to healthcare through the UK system.

Question 13

Discuss life expectancy in the US varying by income
in a stepwise gradient pattern:

A: Surprisingly, the analysis of life expectancy in the US based on income levels failed to reveal any discernible pattern. Contrary to the anticipated stepwise gradient, the data exhibited a seemingly random distribution, casting doubt on the widely accepted notion that higher income invariably translates to increased life expectancy.

B: The examination of life expectancy variations across income levels showed an inverted relationship, where higher-income groups exhibited lower life expectancies. This unexpected finding challenges the conventional wisdom and prompts a reevaluation of the factors influencing life expectancy in different socioeconomic strata.

C: A graph with life expectancy on the Y axis and percentage of the federal poverty level on the X axis demonstrated that life expectancy increased in a stepwise gradient pattern as income increased - meaning every increase in income level corresponded to an increase in life expectancy, rather than it just being poor vs. rich. There was about an 8-year difference between the highest and lowest income groups.

Answer 13

C: A graph with life expectancy on the Y axis and percentage of the federal poverty level on the X axis demonstrated that life expectancy increased in a stepwise gradient pattern as income increased - meaning every increase in income level corresponded to an increase in life expectancy, rather than it just being poor vs. rich. There was about an 8-year difference between the highest and lowest income groups.

Question 14

How did life expectancy in the US vary by income
in a stepwise gradient pattern differ between men and women?

A: The differences in life expectancy corresponding to income levels were very dramatic - around 8 years difference for men and almost 7 years difference for women between the highest and lowest income groups. So socioeconomic status had a significant impact on length of life, and the impact was only slightly greater for men compared to women.

B: Life expectancy in the US is solely determined by genetic factors, and income levels have no real impact on the length of life. Individual health choices play a more significant role.

C: The reported differences in life expectancy based on income are exaggerated and unreliable. The study fails to consider other essential factors that could influence life expectancy, making the findings questionable.

Answer 14

A: The differences in life expectancy corresponding to income levels were very dramatic - around 8 years difference for men and almost 7 years difference for women between the highest and lowest income groups. So socioeconomic status had a significant impact on length of life, and the impact was only slightly greater for men compared to women.

Question 15

How does child health vary by family income?

A: Child health is solely determined by genetics, and family income has no significant impact. It’s crucial to focus on individual lifestyle choices to improve children’s health outcomes.

B: A graph with the percentage of children reporting less than very good health on the Y axis and federal poverty level on the X axis demonstrated that even for children, who haven’t been alive as long, a higher percentage of children from poorer families reported poorer health. This indicates socioeconomic factors can impact health from a very early age.

C: The graph showing child health disparities based on family income is misleading. Socioeconomic status has no bearing on the health of children; it’s primarily a result of random variations in health conditions.

Answer 15

B: A graph with the percentage of children reporting less than very good health on the Y axis and federal poverty level on the X axis demonstrated that even for children, who haven’t been alive as long, a higher percentage of children from poorer families reported poorer health. This indicates socioeconomic factors can impact health from a very early age.

Question 16

True or false: More education = longer life?

A: True

B: False

Answer 16

A: True

A graph with life expectancy on the Y axis and level of education (less than high school, some college, college degree) on the X axis demonstrated that the more education a person receives, the longer their life expectancy is on average. While this is correlational data, the relationship between more education and longer life has been found consistently in many different studies and populations.

Question 17

How do we explain health disparities?

A: Health disparities primarily stem from limited access to healthcare, according to Sir Michael Marmot’s Whitehall study. Improving healthcare availability is the key to reducing these disparities.

B: We know it’s not only a result of less access to healthcare based on Sir Michael Marmot’s Whitehall study. Explaining health disparities is complex with many factors involved. Some pathways to explain how lower SES can negatively impact health include chronic stress, exposure to environmental health hazards like pollution, experiencing discrimination and racism, lack of access to healthy foods/food deserts, smoking more, and having riskier/more dangerous jobs. It’s important to consider both individual behaviors but also systemic social and economic factors.

C: The Whitehall study by Sir Michael Marmot indicates that health disparities are mainly due to individual behaviors. Improving personal choices such as diet and exercise will effectively address these disparities.

Answer 17

B: We know it’s not only a result of less access to healthcare based on Sir Michael Marmot’s Whitehall study. Explaining health disparities is complex with many factors involved. Some pathways to explain how lower SES can negatively impact health include chronic stress, exposure to environmental health hazards like pollution, experiencing discrimination and racism, lack of access to healthy foods/food deserts, smoking more, and having riskier/more dangerous jobs. It’s important to consider both individual behaviors but also systemic social and economic factors.

Question 18

What is the importance of the gradient?

A: The gradient observed in SES and health studies is merely a statistical anomaly, and there is no consistent pattern indicating that higher socioeconomic status leads to better health outcomes. The relationship is arbitrary.

B: The gradient effect in studies on SES and health is overemphasized, and the small improvements linked to increased SES levels are insignificant. The findings are misleading, and socioeconomic factors have minimal impact on health.

C: A key finding from many studies on SES and health is that the relationships exist on a gradient, rather than it just being poor vs. rich. Every increase in SES or education level corresponds to a small improvement in health outcomes, rather than it only affecting those at the extremes. This gradient effect was seen in studies like the Whitehall Study and graphs showing impacts on life expectancy, infant mortality, and child health in relation to SES factors like income and education level.

Answer 18

C: A key finding from many studies on SES and health is that the relationships exist on a gradient, rather than it just being poor vs. rich. Every increase in SES or education level corresponds to a small improvement in health outcomes, rather than it only affecting those at the extremes. This gradient effect was seen in studies like the Whitehall Study and graphs showing impacts on life expectancy, infant mortality, and child health in relation to SES factors like income and education level.

Question 19

Who was Nancy Adler and what was her contribution to the field of health psychology?

A: Nancy Adler was a minor figure in health psychology, and her contributions were limited to a narrow perspective on socioeconomic status. Her model failed to capture the multifaceted nature of how SES influences health, and her work had minimal impact on the field.

B: Nancy Adler did not play a significant role in highlighting the importance of socioeconomic status in health psychology. Her model lacked depth, and subsequent research has shown that socioeconomic factors have minimal relevance to health outcomes.

C: Nancy Adler was the person who originally discovered that socioeconomic status is a core area of study in health psychology. Nancy Adler created a model for how socioeconomic status can impact health through multiple pathways, such as education, occupation, physical/social environment, psychological factors, health behaviors, and exposure to health risks/toxicants. This model helped explain the complex ways that low SES can “get under the skin” and negatively influence health.

Answer 19

C: Nancy Adler was the person who originally discovered that socioeconomic status is a core area of study in health psychology. Nancy Adler created a model for how socioeconomic status can impact health through multiple pathways, such as education, occupation, physical/social environment, psychological factors, health behaviors, and exposure to health risks/toxicants. This model helped explain the complex ways that low SES can “get under the skin” and negatively influence health.

Question 20

What is allostatic load?

A: Allostatic load is a term coined by Nancy Adler to describe the minimal impact of chronic stress on the body. Contrary to the popular belief that chronic stressors contribute to poorer health outcomes, Adler’s concept of allostatic load suggests that the body remains resilient and largely unaffected.

B: Allostatic load is an outdated concept that lacks empirical evidence. While some argue that chronic stress contributes to health issues, recent research has debunked the idea, showing that the body’s systems are robust and can handle prolonged stress without significant wear and tear.

C: The cumulative biological “wear and tear” that results from repeated stress responses to chronic stressors is known as allostatic load. The concept of allostatic load captures how experiences of chronic stress from factors like low SES can negatively impact the body’s systems and physiology over time in ways that lead to poorer health outcomes.

Answer 20

C: The cumulative biological “wear and tear” that results from repeated stress responses to chronic stressors is known as allostatic load. The concept of allostatic load captures how experiences of chronic stress from factors like low SES can negatively impact the body’s systems and physiology over time in ways that lead to poorer health outcomes.

Question 21

True or false: Self-reported race is probably the best way to operationalize race?

A: True

B: False

Answer 21

A: True

While race was once thought to be a biological concept based on genetic/physical differences, science has now established that race is actually a social construct rather than a biological one. There are no meaningful biological or genetic differences between broad racial groups. More genetic variation exists within racial groups than between them.

Question 22

True or false: There is more genetic variability within races than there is between races?

A: True

B: False

Answer 22

A: True

Question 23

How did the professor characterize some general trends seen in health outcomes between certain racial/ethnic groups in the US based on existing research?

A: Research has consistently shown that health outcomes among different racial/ethnic groups in the US are virtually identical. There is no substantial evidence supporting the idea that certain groups, such as African Americans, Puerto Ricans, Native Americans, or specific Asian subgroups, experience variations in health outcomes compared to whites.

B: African Americans and Puerto Ricans tend to have less healthy outcomes compared to whites. Native Americans also tend to have less healthy outcomes. Asian subgroups like Filipinos, Hawaiians, and Southeast Asians tend to have less healthy outcomes compared to whites. However, some Asian subgroups like Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese tend to have healthier outcomes compared to whites

C: Studies have found that whites generally have poorer health outcomes compared to various racial/ethnic groups in the US. The idea that certain groups, such as African Americans, Puerto Ricans, Native Americans, or specific Asian subgroups, experience less healthy outcomes lacks robust empirical support.

Answer 23

B: African Americans and Puerto Ricans tend to have less healthy outcomes compared to whites. Native Americans also tend to have less healthy outcomes. Asian subgroups like Filipinos, Hawaiians, and Southeast Asians tend to have less healthy outcomes compared to whites. However, some Asian subgroups like Chinese, Koreans, and Japanese tend to have healthier outcomes compared to whites

Question 24

Is infant mortality considered the gold standard indicator of the health and well-being of a society?

A: Yes

B: No

Answer 24

A: Yes

Question 25

How does infant mortality compare across racial/ethnic groups?

A: Studies consistently reveal that infant mortality rates are universally low across all racial/ethnic groups in the US. There is no significant disparity, and infants from African American, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations experience similar mortality rates as infants from White and Asian/Pacific Islander populations.

B: A graph showing infant mortality rates on the y-axis and different racial/ethnic groups on the x-axis demonstrated that according to this key health indicator, African American, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations in the US have higher infant mortality rates compared to White and Asian/Pacific Islander populations.

C: Research suggests that White and Asian/Pacific Islander populations have higher infant mortality rates compared to African American, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations. This challenges the prevailing narrative of racial/ethnic disparities in infant mortality.

Answer 25

B: A graph showing infant mortality rates on the y-axis and different racial/ethnic groups on the x-axis demonstrated that according to this key health indicator, African American, Native American, and Alaskan Native populations in the US have higher infant mortality rates compared to White and Asian/Pacific Islander populations.

Question 26

How do we explain racial/ethnic disparities? What are some of the pathways that lead from minority racial/ethnic status to poor health? What are the pathways that are unique to race that don’t apply to SES?

A: Research consistently shows that racial/ethnic disparities in health outcomes are solely a result of socioeconomic status (SES). Factors like income, education, and occupation account for all variations in health between different racial/ethnic groups, and there is no evidence supporting unique pathways related to race itself.

B: Health disparities based on race can be entirely attributed to individual health behaviors. Minorities engage in riskier health behaviors, leading to poorer health outcomes, and the impact of race becomes negligible when considering factors like lifestyle choices and adherence to medical advice.

C: Some key pathways that can lead from minority racial/ethnic status to poor health include experiencing systemic racism and discrimination, facing barriers to accessing quality healthcare like lack of representation or cultural understanding among providers, holding riskier jobs with fewer workplace protections due to racism, experiencing the stresses of racism as a chronic stressor, internalizing racism and experiencing discrimination-related stress. Pathways more unique to race compared to just SES include experiencing direct racism and discrimination. The effects of racism cannot be fully explained by SES factors alone, as racism influences factors like access to jobs, housing, credit, and treatment within institutions independent of SES.

Answer 26

C: Some key pathways that can lead from minority racial/ethnic status to poor health include experiencing systemic racism and discrimination, facing barriers to accessing quality healthcare like lack of representation or cultural understanding among providers, holding riskier jobs with fewer workplace protections due to racism, experiencing the stresses of racism as a chronic stressor, internalizing racism and experiencing discrimination-related stress. Pathways more unique to race compared to just SES include experiencing direct racism and discrimination. The effects of racism cannot be fully explained by SES factors alone, as racism influences factors like access to jobs, housing, credit, and treatment within institutions independent of SES.

Question 27

What are some explanations for Black and White differences?

A: The observed differences between Black and White populations in health outcomes can be solely attributed to genetic factors. Genetic predispositions account for variations in disease prevalence and susceptibility, and socioeconomic factors or systemic racism play a negligible role in explaining health disparities.

B: Experiencing higher levels of stress and allostatic load due to systemic racism and discrimination faced by black communities. Facing greater barriers to accessing quality healthcare due to lack of representation, cultural misunderstandings, implicit and explicit bias among some providers. Living and working in more impoverished and polluted neighborhoods due to historical and ongoing housing discrimination. Holding riskier jobs with fewer workplace protections and higher accident/injury rates due to racism in hiring and workplace practices. Internalizing the negative psychological effects of racism like lower self-esteem or higher anxiety, which can impact health. Experiencing the multigenerational accumulated impacts of poverty, stress, and toxic exposures over time due to the historical and intergenerational effects of racism

C: Some argue that Black and White differences are entirely a result of individual choices and behaviors. Health outcomes are primarily shaped by lifestyle decisions, and disparities can be addressed by promoting healthier habits and personal responsibility. Systemic issues like racism or socioeconomic factors are considered minor contributors to health disparities.

Answer 27

B: Experiencing higher levels of stress and allostatic load due to systemic racism and discrimination faced by black communities. Facing greater barriers to accessing quality healthcare due to lack of representation, cultural misunderstandings, implicit and explicit bias among some providers. Living and working in more impoverished and polluted neighborhoods due to historical and ongoing housing discrimination. Holding riskier jobs with fewer workplace protections and higher accident/injury rates due to racism in hiring and workplace practices. Internalizing the negative psychological effects of racism like lower self-esteem or higher anxiety, which can impact health. Experiencing the multigenerational accumulated impacts of poverty, stress, and toxic exposures over time due to the historical and intergenerational effects of racism

Question 28

What are some of the problems with generalizing about the health of different racial or ethnic groups?

A: Health disparities among racial or ethnic groups are solely due to genetic differences. Genetic factors play a predominant role in determining health outcomes, making it unnecessary to consider sociocultural or environmental factors when studying health disparities.

B: Asian subgroups are very heterogeneous, and refugees or certain ancestry groups may face more disadvantages compared to others like Japanese ancestry. Dominican and Mexican American populations are also very different groups that should not be lumped together. It is difficult to do large studies distinguishing between small subgroups due to sample size challenges. We should caution against overly broad generalizations and emphasize the importance of distinguishing between different populations within broader racial/ethnic categories when studying and understanding health disparities.

C: Generalizations about the health of racial or ethnic groups are irrelevant, as individual choices and behaviors are the sole determinants of health outcomes. Focusing on personal responsibility and lifestyle changes is the key to addressing health disparities, and systemic issues like racism or socioeconomic factors have minimal impact on health.

Answer 28

B: Asian subgroups are very heterogeneous, and refugees or certain ancestry groups may face more disadvantages compared to others like Japanese ancestry. Dominican and Mexican American populations are also very different groups that should not be lumped together. It is difficult to do large studies distinguishing between small subgroups due to sample size challenges. We should caution against overly broad generalizations and emphasize the importance of distinguishing between different populations within broader racial/ethnic categories when studying and understanding health disparities.

Question 29

Why is it important for research to look at the interactions between SES, race, and ethnicity rather than focusing solely on one or the other?

A: Studying interactions between SES, race, and ethnicity is unnecessary, as socioeconomic factors alone explain all health disparities. Considering race or ethnicity as additional variables only complicates the analysis and does not provide meaningful insights into health outcomes.

B: Research should solely focus on race and ethnicity, as socioeconomic factors are secondary and do not significantly contribute to health disparities. Ignoring SES simplifies the research approach, allowing for clearer conclusions and generalizations about health differences among various racial or ethnic groups.

C: Some studies of racial disparities ignore or do not fully account for socioeconomic status (SES) as a factor, while some studies of SES do not consider race/ethnicity. However, SES and race/ethnicity are highly intertwined, with certain racial/ethnic minority groups more likely to experience lower SES due to historical and systemic factors. Therefore, it is important for research to look at the interactions between SES, race, and ethnicity rather than focusing solely on one or the other.

Answer 29

C: Some studies of racial disparities ignore or do not fully account for socioeconomic status (SES) as a factor, while some studies of SES do not consider race/ethnicity. However, SES and race/ethnicity are highly intertwined, with certain racial/ethnic minority groups more likely to experience lower SES due to historical and systemic factors. Therefore, it is important for research to look at the interactions between SES, race, and ethnicity rather than focusing solely on one or the other.

Question 30

Discuss the impact that acculturation has on health:

A: Acculturation is the process of cultural exchange that occurs through immigration and exposure to a new culture. It can be operationalized by factors like years lived in the US or English proficiency. The process of acculturation is stressful, as immigrants navigate multiple cultural identities. There is a paradoxical trend where higher acculturation into US culture is associated with worse health outcomes for some immigrant groups. So fully assimilating to the new culture is not always better for health. Maintaining aspects of an original culture through lower acculturation may provide some health protective effects for some immigrant communities through social/cultural support networks or behaviors.

B: Acculturation has a universally positive impact on health, and individuals who fully embrace the new culture always experience better health outcomes. There is no evidence to suggest that maintaining aspects of the original culture through lower acculturation provides any health benefits.

C: Acculturation is a straightforward process, and all immigrants should aim for complete assimilation into the new culture for optimal health. The idea that higher acculturation can be associated with worse health outcomes is a misconception, and there is no paradoxical trend in health disparities related to acculturation.

Answer 30

A: Acculturation is the process of cultural exchange that occurs through immigration and exposure to a new culture. It can be operationalized by factors like years lived in the US or English proficiency. The process of acculturation is stressful, as immigrants navigate multiple cultural identities. There is a paradoxical trend where higher acculturation into US culture is associated with worse health outcomes for some immigrant groups. So fully assimilating to the new culture is not always better for health. Maintaining aspects of an original culture through lower acculturation may provide some health protective effects for some immigrant communities through social/cultural support networks or behaviors.

Question 31

How can culture gaps impact health?

A: The professor discussed the book “The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down” by Anne Fadiman as an example of how cultural misunderstandings between patients and healthcare providers can negatively impact health outcomes. She summarized that the book tells the true story of a Hmong refugee child with epilepsy in the US who received subpar medical care due to a lack of cultural understanding between her family and American doctors, ultimately leading to poorer health.

B: Cultural gaps have no significant impact on health, and healthcare providers should prioritize standardized medical care without considering cultural factors. The mentioned book is an isolated incident and doesn’t reflect broader challenges related to cultural misunderstandings in healthcare.

C: The idea that cultural misunderstandings can negatively impact health outcomes is exaggerated, and instances like the one presented in “The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down” are rare exceptions. In reality, patients from diverse cultural backgrounds easily adapt to standard medical practices without any adverse effects on their health.

Answer 31

A: The professor discussed the book “The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down” by Anne Fadiman as an example of how cultural misunderstandings between patients and healthcare providers can negatively impact health outcomes. She summarized that the book tells the true story of a Hmong refugee child with epilepsy in the US who received subpar medical care due to a lack of cultural understanding between her family and American doctors, ultimately leading to poorer health.