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ANSC 310 > Week 2 midterm 2 > Flashcards

Week 2 midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A

neural pathways for reflexes

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2
Q

What is the muscle spindle stretch reflex?

A

the reflex pathway in which muscle stretch initiates a contraction response

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3
Q

What are the 5 neural pathways of a reflex arc?

A
  • stimulus*
    1. sensor receptor
    2. afferent neuron
    3. integration center
    4. efferent neuron
    5. effector organ
  • response*
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4
Q

Spinal reflexes require what?

A

require NO input from the brain

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5
Q

Cranial reflexes require what?

A

require input from the brain (integrated from within)

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6
Q

Innate reflexes

A

Genetically programmed in everyones body

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7
Q

Conditioned reflexes

A

learned reflexes - acquired through experience

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8
Q

Monosynaptic reflexes

A

Have 2 neurons - afferent and efferent (only somatic motor reflexes)

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9
Q

Somatic motor reflexes

A

Controls the effector - controls skeletal muscles (efferent)

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10
Q

Autonomic reflexes

A

Controls the effector - control smooth and cardiac muscle, glands and adipose tissue (efferent)

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11
Q

Polysynaptic reflexes

A

One or more interneurons between afferent and efferent neurons (all autonomic reflexes – have 3 neurons)

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12
Q

What is the stretch reflex (aka knee-jerk reflex)

A

only known monosynpatic reflex

  • receptor is a muscle spindle that detects lengthening of the muscle
  • tapping the patellar tendon below the knee cap causes the quadriceps in the upper thigh to stretch which excites the muscle spindles, therefore generating AP’s that travel to the spinal cord
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13
Q

What are muscle spindles

A

stretch receptors that send info to the spinal cord and brain about muscle length and changes in it

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14
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

sensory receptors in the subcutaneous tissues that detect motion and position of the body through a stimulus produced within the body (in muscles and joints)

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15
Q

What do extrafusal muscle fibers do?

A

receptor for stretch and force – most of the muscle and are the major force-generating structure (larger than intra)

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16
Q

What are intrafusal muscle fibers?

A

found within each muscle spindles, contain afferent receptors for stretch and contractile elements on the ends (smaller than extra)
- central region lacks myofibrils

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17
Q

What is the central region of an intrafusal muscle fiber composed of?

A

no myofibrils, wrapped with sensory nerve endings stimulated by stretch

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18
Q

What is muscle tone?

A

the amount of tension in muscles (even a little bit present at rest)

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19
Q

What do sensory neurons do? (X3)

A
  • get activated by sensory input from the environment
  • send AP’s to the spinal cord
  • continuously activate motor neurons keeping the muscle at a tone
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20
Q

What happens when spindles/muscles stretch?

A
  • causes sensory fibers to fire more rapidly
  • more AP generated
  • creates a reflex contraction to prevent damage
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21
Q

What keeps muscle spindles alive?

A

gamma motor neurons

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22
Q

What keeps muscle spindles alive/tense/give them tone?

A

gamma motor neurons

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23
Q

What do alpha motor neurons do?

A

largest neurons in the spinal cord, innervate (provide nerves) extrafusal muscle fibers and are directly responsible for initiating their contraction

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24
Q

What are the 4 key things for a successful completion of a voluntary motor task

A
  1. development of an idea to move
  2. putting together a program of motor commands for the movement
  3. executing the movement
  4. constant feedback to ensure it was smooth and successful
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25
Q

What does the spinal cord do?

A

it integrates spinal reflexes and contains central pattern generators

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26
Q

What do the brainstem / cerebellum do?

A

control postural reflexes and hand / eye movements

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27
Q

What does the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia do?

A

they are responsible for voluntary movements

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28
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

relays and modifies signals (manager) as they pass from the spinal cord, basal ganglia and cerebellum to the cerebral cortex

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29
Q

What do central pattern generators (CPG’s) do?

A

maintain spontaneous repetitive activity

  • neural circuits
  • walking, swimming, breathing or chewing
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30
Q

Voluntary movement requires coordination between what 3 things?

A
  1. cerebral cortex
  2. cerebellum
  3. basal ganglia
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31
Q

Voluntary movement requires coordination between what 3 parts of the body?

A
  1. cerebral cortex
  2. cerebellum
  3. basal ganglia
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32
Q

Voluntary movement requires what 4 things?

A
  1. knowledge of the bodys position
  2. a decision to execute
  3. a plan for execution
  4. memory of that plan
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33
Q

Limbic system is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

idea

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34
Q

Association areas are related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

idea

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35
Q

Supplementary motor area is related to what 2 steps of voluntary movement?

A

idea / program

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36
Q

Premotor area is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

program

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37
Q

Primary motor cortex is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

program

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38
Q

Pyramidal tract is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

execution

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39
Q

Extrapyramidal tract is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

execution

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40
Q

Motor neuron is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

execution

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41
Q

Sensory systems are related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

feedback

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42
Q

Cerebellum is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

feedback

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43
Q

Thalamus is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

feedback

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44
Q

Basal nuclei are related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

feedback

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45
Q

Brainstem is related to what step of voluntary movement?

A

feedback

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46
Q

What does the pyramidal tract neuron do?

A

it controls distal extremities: hands, toes, fingers, etc (distal = further away than proximal)

  • takes info from upper motor neurons in the cortex and direct lower motor neurons in the spinal cord (directly connected or indirectly connected with interneurons)
  • one pathway
  • voluntary movement
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47
Q

Why don’t horses have very developed pyramidal tracts?

A

cause they don’t have hands or toes

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48
Q

Where is the upper motor neuron and what does it do? How does it respond to signals?

A
  • located in the spinal cord
  • always excitatory
  • receives signal from the upper motor neuron: fires an AP and muscle contracts
  • receives no signal: nothing happens, muscle stays at rest
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49
Q

What do extrapyramidal tract neurons do and what kinda inputs do they have?

A

pathways outside pyramidal tracts

  • support voluntary movement of proximal extremeties (closer to the body than distal)
  • controls movement of the trunk, neck and legs
  • involuntary movement
  • indirect input only
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50
Q

What are the 3 pathways for extrapyramidal tracts and where do they go?

A
  1. rubrospinal (red): midbrain to spinal cord
  2. vestibulospinal: vestibular nuclei to spinal cord
  3. reticulospinal: medualla oblongata to spinal cord
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51
Q

What does the body use for involuntary control over posture?

A

receives info from the eyes and ears (vestibular system)

  • sensory receptors in the skin
  • muscles and joints (proprioceptors)
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52
Q

What is the role of the cerebellum? (x4)

A
  • compares actual to planned movements (regulation of motor coordination)
  • stores programs for remembered motor activities
  • informs the cortex to make corrections
  • contributes to muscle tone
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53
Q

Do herbivores or omnivores/carnivores tend to sleep longer/more?

A

Carnivores/omnivores

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54
Q

What is the definition of sleep?

A

a reversible and normal suspension of consciousness

- active process: requires E

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55
Q

What are the most likely reasons for sleep?

- hypotheses why

A
  • conserve E (best/most likely reason)
  • allows the body to repair itself
  • process memories
  • lets brain rest/restore energies
  • helps the immune system function
  • clearing waste out of the cerebral spinal fluid (especially proteins)
  • helps improve performance on tasks and tests
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56
Q

What is electroencephalography?

A

the electrical activity of the brain

  • uses metal discs
  • EEG
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57
Q

What are the 4 stages of sleep?

A

W: wake stage
REM: rapid eye movement
N1,N2,N3: slow wave or non REM

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58
Q

What is REM sleep (rapid eye movement) stage R?

A
  • every 90 mins
  • beta waves
  • associated with dreaming
  • most likely to wake up during
  • eyes move and brain is active
  • starts 90 mins after falling asleep and the phases of it get longer throughout the night
  • characterized by waves with low amplitude and high frequency
  • paralyzes skeletal muscles
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59
Q

What are stages N1 and N2 of non-REM?

A
  • theta waves
  • N1 = lightest stage of non-REM sleep
  • N2 deeper than N1
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60
Q

What is N3 stage of non REM?

A
  • slow wave / deep sleep
  • delta waves
  • most difficult to awaken
  • high amp, low frequency (opposite to REM)
  • adjust body position without command from the brain
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61
Q

Towards the end of sleeping, what stages do you spend in most?

A

REM and N1

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62
Q

What stages of sleep are you in at first?

A

N1 and N3

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63
Q

What controls circadian rhythm?

A

the hypothalamic biological clock

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64
Q

What does the biological clock do?

A

causes changes in the level of wakefulness in response to day/night cycles

65
Q

What is the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)?

A

part of the reticular formation that projects to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and forebrain; signals to the entire brain, most prominently in the cortex

66
Q

What does the forebrain do in respects of sleep?

A

Induces non-REM sleep (N1,2,3)

67
Q

What 3 groups of neurons are involved in sleep-wake cycles?

A

noradrenergic (norepinephrine), cholinergic (acetylcholine) and serotonergic (serotonin)

68
Q

What drugs are high during wakefulness and low during sleep?

A

norepinephrine, serotonin and orexin

69
Q

What drugs are high during wakefulness and REM but low during non-REM?

A

acetylcholine and dopamine

70
Q

What are the 4 steps to falling asleep?

A
  1. nerves from the eye signal the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) that the light level is decreasing
  2. SCN stimulates the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
  3. VPN decreases the activity of the reticular formation
  4. decreased activity causes the thalamus to disconnect from the cerebral cortex. therefore decreasing the level of conciousness
71
Q

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)?

A

it recieves signals from the eye that light is decreasing and stimulates the ventrolateral preoptic nucleus

72
Q

What are orexins and what do they do?

A

a neurotransmitter that increases before wakening and maintains a state of wakefulness
- stimulates reticular formation which in turn stimulates the thalamus to send an external sensory stimuli to the cerebral cortex

73
Q

What triggers arousal?

A

orexin, and the activation of cholinergic and noradrenergic pathways

74
Q

What are some things that sleep loss can cause?

A
  • imbalance in temperature
  • weight loss
  • weakened immune system
  • decrease in cognitive abilities
  • hallucinations (humans)
  • death
75
Q

During infection, what stage of sleep is increased and decreased?

A

increased: N3
decreased: REM

76
Q

What microbial components mimic the sleep effect?

A

lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and muramyl peptides

77
Q

What interleukins can cause an increase in non-REM sleep?

A

increases in the intracverebral or plasma levels of the TNF or IL1

78
Q

What are sensory receptors and how do they work?

A

they are specialized nerve endings that separate cells that detect a sensory stimulus or a specific form of energy

79
Q

What are visceral afferents?

A

receptors that gather info from the visceral organs (heart, lungs, liver, pancreas, intestines, etc.)

80
Q

What is the afferent branch?

A

a branch of the peripheral nervous system that carries info from the periphery to the CNS

81
Q

What 2 sensory systems allow us to perceive the external environment?

A
  1. somatosensory system

2. special senses

82
Q

What does the somatosensory system do?

A

a sensory network that monitors the surface of the body and its movements

83
Q

What are the 5 special senses

A
  1. vision
  2. hearing
  3. balance/equilibrium
  4. taste
  5. smell
    smell = neurons // rest = nonneural (synapse onto sensory neurons)
84
Q

What are the 3 receptors and which have myelin

A

pain (no myelin)
touch (myelin)
ear hair (myelin)

85
Q

What is the pacinian copuscle?

A

a touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations

86
Q

Where are free nerve endings found?

A

in the skin and other tissues

87
Q

What are chemoreceptors?

A

chemical sensors in the brain and blood vessels that identify chemical ligands that bind to it (O2, H, glucose… etc.)

88
Q

What are mechanoreceptors?

A

sensory receptors responsible for sensing mechanical E due to distortion in body tissues such as pressure, cell stretch, vibration, acceleration and sound

89
Q

What are baroreceptors?

A

sensory receptors that sense pressure changes

90
Q

What are osmoreceptors?

A

sensory receptors that sense cell stretch

91
Q

What are thermoreceptors?

A

sensory receptors that respond to varying degrees of heat (cold/hot)

92
Q

What are photoreceptors?

A

sensory receptors that respond to photons of light (for vision – detect light waves)

93
Q

What is transduction?

A

the process of conversion of the stimulus energy into electrical energy or graded potentials (transfer of E from one form into another)

94
Q

What is modality?

A

the E form of a stimulus (light/sound waves, pressure, temp, chemicals, etc) – receptors specific to one type

95
Q

What is an adequate stimulus?

A

the modality to which a receptor is most sensitive, and therefore best responds to

96
Q

What causes graded potentials?

A

the opening and closing of ion channels (if greater than threshold, triggers an AP) – increased stimulus increases the amplitude of a graded potential

97
Q

What is adaptation?

A

a decrease in the amplitude of a receptor potential over time in presence of a constant stimulus

  • decrease in the frequency of the AP
  • decreases perception of the stimulus
98
Q

How do most receptors respond to a stimulus?

A

some continue to respond for the full time its applied but MOST adapt to it and their response declines with time

99
Q

Why do we get used to scents?

A

because olfactory receptors are rapid adapting receptors

100
Q

What is the first order neuron?

A

the afferent neuron that transmits info from the periphery to the CNS

101
Q

What are second order neurons?

A

interneurons that transmit the info to the thalamus

102
Q

Where is the visual cortex located?

A

in the occipital and temporal lobes

103
Q

Where is the gustatory cortex located and what does it do?

A

an area of the brain that receives and interprets tastes from the tongue – located partly on the frontal lobe

104
Q

What is the somatosensory cortex and where is it?

A

an area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

105
Q

What is the vestibular cortex and where is it located

A

posterior part of the insula and adjacent parietal cortex – is responsible for conscious awareness of balance (head position in space)

106
Q

Where is the olfactory cortex and what does it do?

A

located on the inferior surface of the frontal lobe – detects smell

107
Q

What is the auditory cortex and where is it located?

A

temporal lobe – responsible for processing sound info

108
Q

What do third order neurons do?

A

synapses form between them and second order neurons in the thalamus and they transmit info to the cerebral cortex

109
Q

What is stimulus intensity coded by?

A

frequency (stronger stimulus results in a larger receptor potential) and population coding (stronger stimulus activates/recruits a greater number of receptors)

110
Q

What is the definition of vision?

A

the process through which light reflected from object in our environment is translated into a mental image

111
Q

What do photoreceptors do?

A

transduce light energy into an electrical signal in the retina

112
Q

What do neural pathways in the retina do?

A

process electrical signals into visual images

113
Q

What is the eye

A

a fluid filled organ

114
Q

What is the outermost layer of the eye composed of and what does it do?

A
  • sclera and cornea

connective tough tissue (white in colour)

115
Q

What is the middle layer of the eye composed of and what does it do?

A
  • choroid

gives nutrients for retina

116
Q

What is the innermost layer of the eye composed of and what does it do?

A
  • retina (photoreceptors – rods and cones)

perceives light

117
Q

How does blood enter and leave the eye?

A

enters: arteries
leaves: veins

118
Q

What does the lens do?

A

takes light and focuses it into the retina

119
Q

What does the pupil do?

A

regulates the amount of light that enters the eye

120
Q

What does the iris do?

A

2 smooth muscles that regulate the diameter of pupil and regulates amount of light that enters the eye (pigment that gives the eye its colour)

121
Q

What does the cornea do?

A

connective transparent tissue – allows light to enter the eye

122
Q

What do the zonular fibers/cilary body?

A

muscles that connect ligaments to the lens and change the size/focus of lens into the retina

123
Q

What is the sclera?

A

An outside connective tissue

124
Q

What is the fovea?

A

the region of sharpest vision (all cones)

125
Q

What do zonules do?

A

they attach the lens to the ciliary muscle

126
Q

What does the canal of schlemm do?

A

takes aqueous humour (fluid) and removes it

127
Q

What causes glaucoma?

A

when liquid accumulates and the pressure damages the chamber (damage to the optic nerve)

128
Q

What is the choroid?

A

it has blood vessels that nourish the retina

129
Q

What maintains the shape of the eye?

A

vitreous chamber

130
Q

What is the range of visible light?

A

380-750nm

131
Q

How does wavelength relate to energy?

A

opposites: increase wavelength, decrease E (vv)

132
Q

What can a cat see?

A

blurry during the day and sharp at night – can’t see red and green

133
Q

What can a bird see?

A

red, green, blue and UV

134
Q

What can a cephalopod see?

A

completely colour blind - shades of gray

135
Q

What can a snake see?

A

low res during the day and good night vision - can see infrared

136
Q

What is the inner circular muscle?

A

constrictor

137
Q

What is the outer radial muscle?

A

dilator

138
Q

What kind of light do animals and humans perceive?

A

reflected and emitted light

139
Q

What is refraction of light?

A

the bending of light, when its speed differs in different mediums (ex. straw in water)

140
Q

What does the retina do?

A

at the back of the eye, receives light that the lens has focused, converts the light into neural signals and sends them to the brain for visual recognition (eye computer signal)
- composed of neural tissue

141
Q

What is the tapetum lucidum?

A

an iridescent layer found in nocturnal animals for maximizing vision under low intensity light; reflects visible light back through the retina, increasing light available to photoreceptors

142
Q

What does the outer layer of the retina contain?

A

rods and cones (photoreceptors) – communicate with bipolar cells

143
Q

What does the middle layer of the retina contain?

A 
bipolar cells (communicate with ganglion cells), amacrine cells and horizontal cells
(a and h cells provide lateral modulation)
144
Q

What does the inner layer of the retina contain?

A

ganglion cells (axons form the optic nerve) – first cell in the pathway to generate APs

145
Q

What is the optic nerve?

A

bundle of nerve fibers that transmits sensory info for vision in the form of electrical impulses from the eye to the brain

146
Q

What are rods? and what kinda/how many opsins

A

responsible for night vision (black and white), more plentiful in the retina, mostly in the periphery of the retina, high degree of convergence with bipolar cells

  • shorter than cones
  • 1 type of opsin (rhodopsin)
147
Q

What are cones? and what kinda/how many opsins

A

responsible for colour and day vision, less plentiful in the retina, mostly in the fovea, low degree of convergence with bipolar cells

  • longer than rod and more slender
  • 3 types of opsin
148
Q

Which vitamin greatly affects vision?

A

Vitamin A

149
Q

Red opsin

A

L - responds to 560 (long wave)

150
Q

Green opsin

A

M - responds to 530 (medium wave)

151
Q

Blue opsin

A

S - responds to 420 (short wave)

152
Q

What is transducin

A

the G-protein that couples rhodopsin to the enzyme phosphodiesterase in rod photoreceptors

153
Q

How is colour perceived?

A

through cone comparison

154
Q

How is glutamate used in convergence?

A

it is the transmitter released from rods and cones that communicates with bipolar neurons

155
Q

What is melanopsin?

A

located in ganglion cells – activated by light it sends signals to the SCN/hypothalamus (regulating circadian rhythm)

156
Q

Where is binocular/monocular vision located?

A

binocular: directly in front
monocular: periphery
- animals with eyes on the sides of their heads have much more monocular vision than those who are in front

157
Q

What is the opponent process theory?

A

cones can detect the presence of a colour because they inhibit the other colour

158
Q

What is the trichromatic theory?

A

that each opsin / cone responds best to its own colour

ANSC 310 (6 decks)

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