Week 2 Flashcards
What is the definition and significance of drug biotransformation?
- Definition: chemical alteration of a foreign chemical within a living organism, usually by enzyme-mediated reactions
- Significance: the goal is to make drugs more soluble (or more polar) in order to be eliminate the drug
What is the role and significance of Phase I biotransformation reactions in drug elimination?
- Role: They are oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis reactions that “unmask” drugs
- Significance: these reactions break down drugs into smaller metabolites
What are the 3 types of Phase I biotransformation reactions and what do they do?
- Oxidation: CYP P450 are important oxidative enzymes occurring in the ER of liver cells; susceptible to induction and inhibition
- RH (active drug) + O2 + NADPH + H+ → ROH (polar drug metabolite) + H2O + NADP+
- Reduction: favors certain chemical groups (ex: nitro group); carried out by CYP enzymes
- Hydrolysis: uses water to break the parent drug into smaller pieces; carried out by CYP enzymes (ex: esterases)
What is the role and significance of Phase II biotransformation reactions in drug elimination?
- Role: addition of side chains through “synthetic” or “conjugation” reactions
- Significance: these reactions add side chains, making them too large for diffusion or polar for elimination
What are the two main types of Phase II reactions and how do they work? What are the other four kinds of reactions possible?
- Glucuronidation: many side-groups (i.e. hydroxyl group) can be glucuronidated by UDPGA (uridine diphosphate glucuronic acid) to become more polar
- Glutathione Conjugation: glutathione readies drugs for excretion by binding to an intermediate (when glutathione is used up, necrosis of liver occurs)
- Sulfation
- Acetylation
- Methylation
- Glycine conjugation
What are enzyme inducers and there impact on drug biotransformation.
- Inducers are drugs or substances that act on enzyme
- Induce DNA transcription of CYP enzymes, leading to increase in metabolite elimination
What are enzyme inhibitors and impact on drug biotransformation.
- Inhibitors are drugs that compete for the same binding site on the enzyme
- Inhibitors reduce enzyme activity (ex: warfarin is not metabolized after patient consumes grapefruit juice – inhibitor – leading to increased risk of bleeding out)
What is the impact of drug biotransformation on…
- disease
- species differences
- age
- hormones
- genetics
- diet
- Genetics: CYP mutations can cause to ultrarapid or poor metabolism of active drugs, leading to differing active drug concentrations across patients
- Another example is rapid and slow acetylator allelic variances
- Disease: diseases that affect liver
- Species Differences: cats do not have glucuronyl transferases
- Age: human babies under 1yo have reduced levels of glucuronyl transferases
- Hormones: thyroid disease causes changes in metabolism
- Diet: grapefruit acts as inhibitor to warfarin
What are the factors (6) that impact hepatic clearance and the significance of those factors on drug elimination.
- First pass effect: only fraction of drug reaches bloodstream after oral intake (bioavailability)
- Hepatic blood flow: increased blood flow increases clearance
- Free drug: binding of drug to plasma proteins (ex: albumin) → less free drug to be excreted
- Enzyme inhibitors/inducers: P450 inducers can increase excretion
- Enterohepatic Recirculation: estrogen is often glucuronidated in liver → bile duct → sugar is cleaved by gut bacteria in GI → estrogen is re-circulated in body
- Extraction Ratio: value close to 1 suggests efficient clearance by an organ; value close to 0 suggests inefficient clearance
- E = (Ca – Cv) / Ca
What is
- glomerular filtration
- tubular secretion
- tubular reabsorption
and how do they impact renal elimination of drugs?
- Glomerular filtration: free drug passively diffused into renal tube
- Limited by size
- Creatinine is used as measure of renal function (not reabsorbed or secreted)
- Tubular reabsorption: lipid-soluble drugs renter bloodstream (can be passive/active)
- Acidifying urine (aka: vitamin C) causes acidic drugs to be reabsorbed and vice-versa for basic drugs
- Tubular secretion: active transport (or secretion) from blood to tubules after glomerulus with saturation kinetics
- Para-aminohippuric acid (PAH) is used as measure since it is completely filtered and secreted
How does addition of probenecid to penicillin treatment help?
When treating infection, probenecid is given with penicillin in order to prevent active transport of penicillin (never filtered)
What are 2 ways that drug interactions impact drug biotransformation and elimination
- Some drugs act as inducers, increasing other drug metabolites
- Some drugs act as inhibitors, decreasing other drug metabolites
How does drug elimination and biotransformation changes that occur across the lifespan….
- Infants
- Children
- Geriatrics
- Infants
- Biotransformation: glucuronidation and CYPs are underdeveloped
- Elimination: glomerular filtration rate (GFR), secretion, reabsorption, not developed until 1yo
- Children
- Biotransformation: high ratio of water : fat causing faster drug clearance
- Geriatrics
- Biotransformation: hepatic blood flow decreases
- Elimination: decreased GFR
Compare/contrast one-compartment versus two-compartment models of pharmacokinetics.
- One-compartment model: drug is absorbed and eliminated in body as one system
- Two-compartment model: drug is absorbed into blood and distributed into tissues (2 rate constants)
What is the difference in time-response between oral versus intravenous drug administration.
Oral administration (PO) has later onset of action (aka “lag time”).
What is the difference in Area Under the Curve (AUC) between PO and IV in the context of bioavailability.
PO has less AUC compared to IV because IV is injected directly into blood, therefore having less bioavailability
Define zero order and first order rates of elimination.
- Zero order: A fixed amount of drug is eliminated per unit of time (constant rate)
- Example: alcohol
- First order: the amount of drug eliminated is proportional to concentration of drug (linear rate)
Describe/define “steady state”.
- Steady state (Cpss): rate of drug degradation = rate of drug entering plasma
- Depends on half-life, but does not depend on dose, dosing rate, or dosing frequency
How/when is “steady state” achieved with intermittent versus continuous dosing?
- Intermittent dosing: Cpss achieved by administering drug at trough, which is the minimum concentration a drug is effective
- Extending dose intervals will increase concentration fluctuations (requires more drug at each dose)
- Continuous dosing: Cpss achieved by administering concentration of drug that matches drug elimination
Apply pharmacokinetic principles to make predictions about:
- how dose affects duration of action
- how changes to clearance
- or volume of distribution
affect half-life, etc.
- Lower dose → lower drug concentration → low duration of action
- Increasing Vd → increases half-life because greater [drug] in body requires elimination (50% of present drug is eliminated each half-life)
- Increasing Clearance → lowers half-life because less [drug] in body requiring elimination (50% of present drug is eliminated each half-life)
Apply knowledge from ADME lectures to describe elements that can alter a drug’s pharmacokinetic properties.
ADME: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Elimination
- Absorption
- Increased absorption → increased Vd → increased half-life
- Distribution
- Increased tagging → increased reservoirs → decreased [drug plasma] → increased Vd → increased half-life
- Metabolism (biotransformation)
- Increased hepatic blood flow → increased biotransformation → Increased polarity → increased plasma solubility → increased elimination
- Elimination (clearance)
- Increased renal blood flow → increased secretion → increased elimination
Describe the physical structure and properties (4) of the plasma membrane.
- Phospholipid bilayer: phosphate and glycerol pointing out, FAs pointing in
- Properties:
- Highly impermeable
- Provides specificity for molecules
- Allows for signal amplification
- Cholesterol adds stability
Describe the features of a membrane protein that cause it to be stable in the cell membrane.
- 20 non-polar AA alpha-helix with side chains pointing outwards for single pass TM protein
- Multi-pass TM protein alpha-helices can be partially non-polar due to alignment with other alpha-helix subunits
Describe why cells require transport proteins and the advantages afforded to the cell in having these proteins.
- Specificity of transport.
- Allows for specific localization of function of protiens.
What is passive and active transport?
- Passive: goes with concentration gradient
- Active: requires energy moving larger molecules or moving against concentration gradient
What is the difference between primary and secondary active transport?
- Primary: directly uses ATP
- Secondary: uses concentration gradient energy of another molecule, but not directly using ATP (ex: GLUT1)
What are gap junction channels?
- Six alpha-helices on each cell connecting two cells, allowing diffusion between cytosols without interacting with ECM
- Non-specific diffusion
- Good for electrical conductance
What is the general structure of ion channels?
- Four TM domains with intracellular or extracellular subunits which can block the channel
- Na+ and Ca++ have one alpha subunit, while potassium has four
Give an example of a pump and how it creates a concentration gradient?
- Na+/K+ ATPase creates concentration gradient close to K+ equilibrium potential ~-70mV
What are the three major types of cell surface receptors.
- Ion Channels
- GCPRs
- Catalytic Receptors
What are the two types of ion channels.
- Ligand-gated: Nicotinic receptors require 2 molecules of ACh to let Na+ in
- Voltage-gated: Na+ voltage gated channel
Describe GCPRs.
- 7 TM spanning protein
- N-terminus is on ECM
- C-terminus is on ICM
- No ligand is bound → G protein is not interacting with receptor → G protein binds to TM portion → GTP replaces GDP on G protein → G protein subunits go off and act on effectors (i.e. adenylyl cyclase)
What are catalytic receptors? Give two examples.
- Single-pass TM alpha-helix
- Binding by ligand causes conformational change (aka: dimerization)
- Example 1: tyrosine kinase receptor binds insulin
- Example 2: ANP and BNP protein floats around when volume in heart (by stretch of right atrium) is too large; binds on nephron to NPR-A or NPR-B, induces a conformational change and dimerization, catalyzing intracellular hydrolysis of GTP to cGMP. This increases Na+ excretion and therefore water secretion
What is membrane potential and how is it measured?
- Membrane potential: voltage difference across the membrane created by the concentration gradient of ions (primarily Na+ and K+)
- Measured by voltage clamp
What is electrochemical equilibrium?
When the chemical and electrical gradients are equal in magnitude.
Describe the roles of the various ATPases and other transport proteins in maintaining the sodium, potassium gradients across the plasma membrane.
Na+/K+ ATPase creates concentration gradient (~-70mV).
What is equilibrium potential of an ion and how it is influenced by ion concentrations?
- Ion concentrations differences between intracellular and extracellular (voltagemembrane) equals equilibrium potential
- Determined by concentration gradient of that ion across a membrane
- Equilibrium potential is reached when channel is no longer in flux
- Each ion has its own equilibrium potential
What are typical ion gradients found across the plasma membrane of a typical cell and how they are sustained.
- Sodium is higher outside cell
- Potassium is higher inside cell
- Calcium is higher outside cell
- Chloride is higher outside cell
- All are sustained through ATPases
What are the equilibrium concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium?
What are the differences in voltage gated channels of K+ and Na+?
- Voltage gates
- K+ channel has one gate and opens slowly
- Na+ channel has two gates
- M gate or activation gate (faster) closes at resting potential and opens with depolarization
- H gate or inhibition gate (slower) opens in resting state and closes at depolarization
- Lag time between gates closing at depolarization allows sodium to rush in
What is refractory period and why the action potential exhibits this property.
- When the cell hyperpolarizes (more – than resting potential), the sodium channels are deactivated
- Puts a limit on frequency of action potentials
Define/describe efficiacy.
the ability to produce a response
Define/describe affinity.
- The ability of a drug to bind to a receptor
- KD is where 50% of receptors are saturated
- Affinity = 1/KD
Define/describe agonist.
has affinity and efficacy
Define/describe antagonists.
has affinity but no efficacy
Define/describe potency.
- A comparative term to compare drugs that work through the same mechanism (same maximal effect, shape of curve, and slope)
- A more potent drug has lower KD
Define/describe desensitization.
- GPCR is uncoupled from receptor as result of chronic exposure to agonists
- When GS is no longer bound to TM portion of GCPR → B-ARK phosphorylates receptor → Arrestin binds receptor, “tagging” it for destruction