Week 2 Flashcards
What is the rostral end of the brain?
The rostral end refers to the ‘nose’ end of the brain.
What does the caudal end of the brain refer to?
The caudal end refers to the ‘tail’ end of the brain.
What is the dorsal surface of the brain?
The dorsal surface is the top surface of the brain.
What is the ventral surface of the brain?
The ventral surface is the bottom surface along the belly.
What does ‘superior’ refer to in brain anatomy?
‘Superior’ refers to the dorsal surface of the brain.
What does ‘inferior’ refer to in brain anatomy?
‘Inferior’ refers to the ventral surface of the brain.
Define the terms anterior and posterior in the context of the brain.
Anterior refers to the front (rostral) end and posterior refers to the back (caudal) end of the brain.
What is a sagittal section of the brain?
A sagittal section is a slice from nose to tail.
What is a midsagittal or medial section?
A midsagittal or medial section is a slice directly through the middle of the brain.
What is a lateral sagittal section?
A lateral sagittal section is a slice taken off to the side of the brain.
What does a coronal section do?
A coronal section separates the front of the brain from the back.
What is an axial, transverse, or horizontal section?
It is a slice that separates dorsal from ventral.
What are the two sets of arteries that supply blood to the brain?
- Vertebral arteries
- Internal carotid arteries
What is the primary purpose of increased blood flow to the brain?
To hasten removal of metabolic by-products of increased neuronal activity.
What type of neuroimaging is based on local changes in blood flow?
- Positron emission tomography
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging
What is the cerebral cortex?
The outer layer of the brain and the last to develop embryologically.
What is the prefrontal cortex and its significance?
The evolutionarily youngest part of the brain, critical for decision making and social behavior.
What is the function of the spinal cord?
It relays sensory information to the brain and conducts outgoing motor signals to muscles.
What are monosynaptic reflex pathways?
Reflex pathways that involve synapses only in the spinal cord.
What is the cauda equina?
The termination of the spinal cord.
What is the vertebral column?
A stack of separate bones extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx.
List the sections of the vertebral column.
- Cervical
- Thoracic
- Lumbar
- Sacral
- Coccygeal
How many segments is the spinal cord divided into?
31 segments.
What are spinal nerves?
Nerves that enter and exit from the vertebral column through openings called foramina.
What does the dorsal root carry?
Sensory input into the spinal cord.
What does the ventral root carry?
Motor output away from the spinal cord.
What are the two horns of the spinal cord’s gray matter?
- Dorsal horn
- Ventral horn
What is the role of interneurons in the spinal cord?
They project to motor neurons on the same and opposite sides to aid in limb movement coordination.
What are the main parts of the brainstem?
- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebellum
- Midbrain
What vital functions does the medulla control?
- Respiration
- Heart rate
- Arousal
- Blood pressure
- Digestive responses
- Vomiting responses
What is the pyramidal tract?
A tract that passes through the medulla and forms the pyramidal decussation.
What is the primary function of the pons?
Connects the brain and the cerebellum.
What significant functions does the reticular formation have?
- Modulates arousal
- Pain regulation
- Cardiovascular control
What is the cerebellum’s primary role?
Maintaining posture, walking, and performing coordinated movements.
How many neurons does the cerebellum house?
Approximately 69 billion of the 89 billion neurons.
What is the midbrain also known as?
Mesencephalon.
What is the role of the superior colliculus?
Plays a role in perceiving objects in the periphery and orienting gaze.
What is the function of the inferior colliculus?
Used for locating and orienting toward auditory stimuli.
What does the red nucleus assist with?
Certain aspects of motor coordination.
What is the larger of the diencephalon structures?
The thalamus
How is the thalamus divided?
Into two parts—one in the right hemisphere and one in the left
What connects the two parts of the thalamus?
A bridge of gray matter called the massa intermedia
What do all sensory modalities do in the thalamus?
Make synaptic relays before continuing to the primary cortical sensory receiving areas
From which structures does the thalamus receive inputs?
Basal ganglia, cerebellum, neocortex, and medial temporal lobe
What is the function of the thalamus regarding projections?
Sends projections back to these structures to create circuits involved in many different functions
What are the specific relays for incoming sensory information in the thalamus called?
Nuclei
Which nucleus receives information from the ganglion cells of the retina?
Lateral geniculate nucleus
Where does the lateral geniculate nucleus send axons?
To the primary visual cortex
Which nucleus receives information from the inner ear?
Medial geniculate nucleus
Where does the medial geniculate nucleus send axons?
To the primary auditory cortex
Somatosensory information projects via which nuclei of the thalamus?
Ventral posterior (medial and lateral) nuclei
Where does somatosensory information project to?
The primary somatosensory cortex
What is located at the posterior pole of the thalamus?
Pulvinar nucleus
What is the role of the pulvinar nucleus?
Involved in attention and in integrative functions involving multiple cortical areas
What is the main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system?
The hypothalamus
Where does the hypothalamus lie?
On the floor of the third ventricle
What structures provide inputs to the hypothalamus?
Limbic system structures and other brain areas
What is one of the primary functions of the hypothalamus?
Control of circadian rhythms
Which brain areas provide inputs to the hypothalamus for circadian rhythm control?
- Mesencephalic reticular formation
- Amygdala
- Retina
What are the major projections that extend from the hypothalamus?
- Prefrontal cortex
- Amygdala
- Spinal cord
- Pituitary gland
What vital functions does the hypothalamus control to maintain homeostasis?
- Basal temperature
- Metabolic rate
- Glucose levels
- Electrolyte levels
- Hormonal state
- Sexual phase
- Circadian cycles
- Immunoregulation
How does the hypothalamus accomplish much of its work?
Through the endocrine system via control of the pituitary gland
What is the median eminence?
An area bordering the pituitary gland that releases regulatory hormones into the circulatory system of the anterior pituitary gland
What hormones are released by the anterior pituitary gland in response to hypothalamic signals?
- Growth hormone
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- Gonadotropic hormones
Which hypothalamic nuclei stimulate the release of vasopressin and oxytocin?
- Supraoptic nucleus
- Paraventricular nuclei
What are the functions regulated by vasopressin and oxytocin?
- Water retention in the kidneys
- Milk production
- Uterine contractility
True or False: The hypothalamus can be stimulated by hormones produced in other regions of the body.
True
What does the telencephalon develop into?
The cerebrum
The cerebrum includes most of the limbic system’s structures, the basal ganglia, the olfactory bulb, and the cerebral cortex.
What structures make up the classical limbic lobe?
- Cingulate gyrus
- Hypothalamus
- Anterior thalamic nuclei
- Hippocampus
The hippocampus is located on the ventromedial aspect of the temporal lobe.
Who first suggested the idea that limbic structures are organized into a system for emotional behavior?
James Papez
In what year did Paul MacLean name the limbic system?
1952
Which structure did Paul MacLean suggest including in the limbic system that was not originally considered?
Amygdala
What is the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in the limbic system?
Regulating emotions and adapting behavior in response to rewards and punishments.
The orbitofrontal cortex is included along with the amygdala and parts of the basal ganglia.
Who summarized the functions of the limbic system into five categories?
Marsel Mesulam
Fill in the blank: The limbic system supports memory by _______.
binding scattered information concerning recent events and experiences
What are some motivational states that the limbic system focuses on?
- Thirst
- Hunger
- Libido
What does the limbic system link with mental activity?
Autonomic, hormonal, and immunological states
True or False: The limbic system coordinates affiliative behaviors.
True
What types of perceptions does the limbic system facilitate?
- Taste
- Smell
- Pain
Fill in the blank: The limbic system is the most capable of _______ in the cortex.
plasticity
What are the basal ganglia?
A collection of nuclei located deep in the brain beneath the anterior portion of the lateral ventricles, near the thalamus
The basal ganglia are involved in various motor and cognitive functions.
Name the five main nuclei of the basal ganglia.
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
- Globus pallidus
- Subthalamic nucleus
- Substantia nigra
These nuclei work together to influence motor control and other functions.
What is the striatum composed of?
The caudate nucleus and the putamen
The striatum is a key component of the basal ganglia.
From where do the basal ganglia receive inputs?
Sensory and motor areas
This input is essential for the functioning of the basal ganglia in movement and behavior.
What type of feedback projections does the striatum receive?
Extensive feedback projections from the thalamus
This feedback is crucial for processing information related to movement and action.
List the functions of the basal ganglia.
- Action selection
- Action gating
- Motor preparation
- Timing
- Fatigue
- Task switching
These functions highlight the basal ganglia’s role in both motor control and cognitive processes.
What role do dopamine receptors play in the basal ganglia?
They represent the error between predicted future reward and actual reward, crucial for motivation and learning
Dopamine signaling is essential for adaptive behaviors.
True or False: The basal ganglia are involved in goal-oriented behavior.
True
This indicates their importance in motivation and planning.
What are the components of the basal ganglia?
Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra.
What does the basal ganglia regulate?
Motor preparation, task switching, and learning from reward errors.
What does the limbic system include?
The hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate gyrus, and hypothalamus.
What is the main function of the hippocampus?
Memory formation and spatial navigation.
What role does the amygdala play?
Processing emotions like fear and arousal.
Which area links the nervous and endocrine systems?
The hypothalamus.
What is the massa intermedia in the thalamus?
A bridge of gray matter connecting the two thalamic hemispheres.
What does the pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus control?
Attention and integrative functions.
What hormone does the hypothalamus help regulate via the pituitary gland?
Vasopressin.
Which subcortical structure controls circadian rhythms?
The hypothalamus.
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
What does the prefrontal cortex control?
Planning, decision-making, and executive functions.
What are Brodmann areas?
Regions of the cortex categorized by cellular structure and organization.
What does the primary sensory cortex process?
Specific sensory inputs like touch, temperature, and pain.
What is the main function of multimodal association areas?
Integrating information from different sensory modalities.
What is the significance of sulci and gyri?
They allow more neurons to fit into the brain’s limited space.
What happens in the secondary somatosensory cortex (S2)?
Continued processing of sensory information.
How does the cortex appear in terms of color?
Gray matter on the surface and white matter beneath.
What are cortical columns or minicolumns?
What are cortical columns or minicolumns?
What is the primary role of the anterior cingulate cortex?
Regulating emotions and decision-making.
