WEEK 1 READING - CHAPTER 2 OF DOING RESEARCH IN THE REAL WORLD Flashcards
WHAT DOES DEDUCTION START WITH AND MOVE TO?
• Deduction begins with universal view of situation and works back to particulars.
WHAT DOES INDUCTION MOVE FROM AND TO?
• Induction moves from fragmentary details to a connected view of a situation.
EXPLAIN THE DEDUCTIVE PROCESS
- Moves towards hypothesis testing.
- Elaboration of a set of principles or allied ideas which are operationalised and then through empirical observation or experimentation.
EXPLAIN THE INDUCTIVE PROCESS
- Plans made for data collection.
- Data then analysed to look for emerging patterns which suggest a relationship between variables.
- Able to construct generalisations, relationships and theories from the observations.
- Doesn’t set out to falsify a theory.
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE:
• Moves towards hypothesis testing
DEDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
• Elaboration of a set of principles or allied ideas which are operationalised and then through empirical observation or experimentation.
DEDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
• Plans made for data collection.
INDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
• Data then analysed to look for emerging patterns which suggest a relationship between variables
INDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
• Able to construct generalisations, relationships and theories from the observations.
INDUCTIVE
INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
• Doesn’t set out to falsify a theory.
INDUCTIVE
HOW CAN INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHODS BE COMBINED?
1.Accumulation of facts, data, etc (inductive reasoning) 2. Hypothesis/theory testing (related theory) 3. Working theory (deductive reasoning) 4. Experimental design
WHAT IS ONTOLOGY?
THE STUDY OF BEING - THE NATURE OF EXISTENCE AND WHAT CONSTITUTES REALITY
WHAT IS EPISTEMOLOGY?
TRIES TO UNDERSTAND WHAT IT MEANS TO KNOW
WHAT IS OBJECTIVIST EPISTEMOLOGY?
REALITY EXISTS INDEPENDENTLY OF CONSCIOUSNESS
WHAT IS POSITIVISM LINKED TO?
OBJECTIVISM
WHAT IS OBJECTIVISM LINKED TO?
POSITIVISM
WHAT DOES POSITIVISM SAY?
REALITY EXISTS EXTERNAL TO THE RESEARCHER AND MUST BE INVESTIGATES THROUGH THE RIGOROUS PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY
WHAT DOES CONSTRUCTIVISM SAY?
TRUTH AND MEANING DON’T EXIST IN SOME EXTERNAL WORLD BUT ARE CREATED BY THE SUBJECT’‘S INTERACTIONS WITH THE WORLD
WHAT IS INTERPRETIVISM LINKED TO?
CONSTRUCTIONISM
WHAT IS CONTRUCTIONISM LINKED TO?
INTERPRETIVISM
WHAT IS SUBJECTIVISM?
MEANING IS IMPOSED ON THE OBJECT BY THE SUBJECT. CONSTRUCTION OF MEANING COMES FROM WITHIN COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS.
WHAT ARE THE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES?
POSITIVISM INTERPRETIVISM (INCLUDING SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM, OHENOLOGY, ETC) CRITICAL ENQUIRY FEMINISM POSTMODERNISM ETC
WHAT DOES POSITIVISM ARGUE?
o Reality consists of what is available to the senses (what can be seen, smelt, touched, etc.)
o Inquiry should be based on scientific observation (not philosophical speculation), and therefore on empirical inquiry.
o The natural and human sciences share common logical and methodological principles, dealing with facts and not with values.
WHAT DOES POSITIVISM PRODUCE?
GENERALISATIONS KNIWN AS SCIENTIFIC LAWS
HOW DOES POSITIVISM LINK TO EPISTEMOLOGY?
IT IS AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL PARADIGM
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH THE POSITIVIST APPROACH?
o Science is not just interested in producing theoretical explanations based on what can be observed - some branches consist of entirely mathematical formulations.
o No theory can ever be proved simply by multiple observations - according to Popper, theories cannot be proved true, only false.
WHAT IS INTERPRETIVISM?
an anti-positivist stance looking for ‘culturally derived and historically situated interpretations of the social life-world’
WHAT DOES INTERPRETIVISM SAY?
natural reality (laws of science) and social reality are difference (while natural science look for consistencies in data to deduce laws (nomothetic), social sciences often deal with the actions of the individual (ideographic)
WHAT ARE THE 5 EXAMPLES OF THE INTERPRETIVIST APPROACH?
symbolic interactionism, phenomenology, realism, hermeneutics and naturalistic enquiry
WHAT IS SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM?
People interpret the meaning of objects and actions and then act upon those interpretations.
Meanings arise from the process of social interaction.
Meanings are handled in, and are modified by, and interactive process used by people dealing with the phenomena that are encountered.
WHAT IS PHENOMENOLOGY?
any attempt to understand social reality must be grounded in people’s experiences of that social reality and so phenomenology insists we must lay aside our prevailing understanding of phenomena and revisit our immediate experience of hem in order that new meanings may emerge
WHAT ARE PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH AND ETHNOGRAPHY BASED UPON?
DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION
WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH FOCUSED MORE ON?
CULTURE
WHAT IS PHENOMENOLOGY BASED MORE ON?
HUMAN EXPERIENCE OF THE LIFE-WORLD
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH AND PHENOMENOLOGY?
Ethnographic research is focused more on culture and phenomenology is based more on human experience of the life-world.
Phenomenology uses exclusively interviews.
Ethnography mainly uses observations to collect data.
WHAT DOES PHENOMENOLOGY USE TO COLLECT DATA?
EXCLUSIVELY INTERVIEWS.
WHAT DOES ETHNOGRAPHY USE TO COLLECT DATA?
MAINLY OBSERVATIONS.
WHAT ARE THE 3 REALIST EPISTEMOLOGIES?
NAIVE REALISM
SCIENTIFIC REALISM
CRITICAL REALISM
WHAT IS NAIVE REALISM?
the world is largely knowable and is just as it appears to be
WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC REALISM?
the scientific method can tap true representations of the world (may sometimes be fallible)
WHAT IS CRITICAL REALISM?
the way we perceive the world depends partly on our beliefs and expectations
WHAT IS PLURALISM KNOWN AS?
Pluralism is the ‘gold standard’, in terms of methodology, of realist research.
WHAT IS THE HERMENEUTIC APPROACH?
social reality seen as socially constructed rather than being rooted in objective fact (interpretation should be given more standing than explanation and description)
WHAT IS NATURALISTIC INQUIRY?
there are multiple constructed realities that can only be studied holistically.
WHAT DOES INQUIRY DEVELOP?
AN IDEOGRAPHIC BODY OF KNOWLEDGE THAT DESCRIBES INDIVIDUAL CASES.
WHAT DO RESEARCH METHODS USUALLY SELECTED BY NATURALISTIC INQUIRER INVOLVE?
those most closely associated with a human component: interviews, ppt observation, document and content analysis - qualitative methods!
WHAT ARE THE ASSUMPTIONS OF CRITICAL INQUIRY?
- Ideas are mediated by power relations in society.
- Certain groups in society are privileged over others and exert an oppressive force on subordinate groups.
- What are presented as ‘facts’ can’t be disentangled from ideology and the self-interest of dominant groups.
- Mainstream research practices are implicated, even if unconsciously, in the reproduction of the system of class, race and gender oppression.
WHAT DOES POSTMODERNISM INCLUDE AND STRESS?
- Concepts such as deconstructionism and post-structuralism.
* Postmodernism stresses a becoming ontology.
WHAT IS PRAGMATISM?
an ideology is only true if it works and generates practical consequences for society
IS EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH USUALLY INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
DEDUCTIVE
WHEN IS QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH USED?
• Quasi-experimental research design used when dealing with existing groups rather than random samples and it occurs in a more natural setting.
WHAT DO EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH PLACE EMPHASIS ON?
- Reproducing the techniques of the laboratory experiment with highly structures methods.
- The generation of initial hypotheses.
- The control of variables.
- Accurate (quantitative) measurement of outcomes.
- Generalisation from samples to similar populations.
WHAT DOES PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH USE FOR DATA COLLECTION?
RELATIVELY UNSTRUCTURED METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION.
DOES PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH USE INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE COLLECTION OF DATA?
INDUCTIVE
DOES PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH COLLECT SMALL OR LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA?
LARGE
EXPLAIN PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH
- EMPHASIS ON…
- USES…
- RELIES ON…
- CONCERNED WITH…
- Emphasizes inductive logic.
- Seeks the opinions and subjective accounts and interpretations of ppts.
- Relies on qualitative analysis of data.
- Is not so much concerned with generalisations to larger populations, but with contextual description and analysis.
WHAT DO ANALYTICAL SURVEYS DO?
TEST THEORY BY EXPLORING ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VARIABLES
WHAT DO ANALYTICAL SURVEYS EMPHASISE?
- A deductive approach
- The identification of the research population
- The drawing of a representative sample from the population
- Control of variables
- The generation of both qualitative and quantitative data
- Generalisability of results
DOES ACTION RESEARCH USE QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE METHODS?
BOTH
EXPLAIN ACTION RESEARCH
- INVOLVES…
- STRUCTURE…
- Involves both researchers and practitioners
- Can be highly structed and involve the use of experimental and control groups used to test a hypothesis
- Can be quite unstructured and used inductively (and qualitatively)
WHAT DOES HEURISTIC INQUIRY BEGIN WITH?
a question/problem to be solved which has posed a personal problem
WHAT ARE FEATURES OF HEURISTIC INQUIRY?
- Begins with a question/problem to be solved which has posed a personal problem.
- Open-ended inquiry, self-directed search and immersion in active experience.
- Self-dialogue.
- Autobiographical.
WHAT DOES HEURISTIC RESEARCH INVOLVE THE RESEARCHER IN?
- Deep personal questioning of what they want to research
- Living, sleeping and merging with the research question
- Allowing inner workings of intuition to extend understanding of the question
- Reviewing all the data from personal experiences to identify tacit meanings
- Forming a creative synthesis, including ideas for and against a proposition
WHEN ARE CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES USED?
for short-term timescale where data is collected at one point in time
WHAT DO CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES OFTEN USE?
SURVEYS
WHEN ARE LONGITUDINAL STUDIES USED?
when there is a more generous timescale
WHAT DO LONGITUDINAL STUDIES STUDY?
change and development over time
WHAT DO EXPLORATORY STUDIES DO?
• Seek to explore what is happening and ask questions about it.
WHEN ARE EXPLORATORY STUDIES USEFUL?
• Useful when there is little knowledge of a phenomenon.
WHAT DO EXPLORATORY STUDIES HELP TO DO?
• Help decide whether it is worth researching it or not.
HOW CAN EXPLORATORY STUDIES BE CONDUCTED?
• Can be conducted by; literature searches, talking to experts in the field, conducting focus group interviews.
WHAT STUDIES MIGHT BE ABLE TO BE CONDUCTED AFTER EXPLORATORY STUDIES?
• May be possible to conduct explanatory or interpretive studies afterwards.
WHAT DO DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES DO?
• Provide a picture of phenomenon as it naturally occurs.
WHAT MIGHT DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES USE?
• May also use a normative study where data is compared against a standard.
WHAT TYPE OF DESCRIPTION IS USED WHEN CONDUCTING DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
• Qualitative description in qualitative research when those studies are descriptive in nature.
WHAT CAN’T DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES EXPLAIN?
WHY AN EVENT HAS OCCURRED.
WHAT DO EXPLANATORY STUDIES DO?
SEEK TO ASK ‘WHY’ AND ‘HOW’ QUESTIONS
ARE EXPLANATORY STUDIES USED MORE IN QUANTITATIVE OR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?
QUANTITATIVE
WHAT CAN EXPLANATORY STUDIES BE?
• Can be correlative in nature with emphasis on finding causal relationships between variables.
WHAT DO INTERPRETIVE STUDIES DO?
• Seek to explore peoples’ experiences and their views/perspectives of these experiences.
ARE INTERPRETIVE STUDIES INDUCTIVE OR DEDUCTIVE?
TYPICALLY INDUCTIVE
WHAT ARE INTERPRETIVE STUDIES OFTEN ASSOCIATED WITH?
• Often associated with qualitative approaches of data collection and analysis.
WHY ARE MULTIPLE METHODS USED IN RESEARCH?
- Research projects usually use a number of difference research questions so one method alone might not be appropriate for all the questions.
- It enables triangulation (collecting data over different times or from different sources.
- Helps balance out any potential weaknesses in each data collection method.
WHAT TYPE OF STUDIES DOES THIS DESCRIBE?
• Seek to explore what is happening and ask questions about it.
• Useful when there is little knowledge of a phenomenon.
• Help decide whether it is worth researching it or not.
• Can be conducted by; literature searches, talking to experts in the field, conducting focus group interviews.
• May be possible to conduct explanatory or interpretive studies afterwards.
EXPLORATORY STUDIES
WHAT TYPE OF STUDIES DOES THIS DESCRIBE?
• Provide a picture of phenomenon as it naturally occurs.
• May also use a normative study where data is compared against a standard.
• Qualitative description in qualitative research when those studies are descriptive in nature.
• Cannot explain why an event has occurred.
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
WHAT TYPE OF STUDIES DOES THIS DESCRIBE? • Seek to ask 'why' and 'how' questions. • Used in more quantitative research. • Can be correlative in nature with emphasis on finding causal relationships between variables. Interpretive studies:
EXPLANATORY STUDIES
WHAT TYPE OF STUDIES DOES THIS DESCRIBE?
• Seek to explore peoples’ experiences and their views/perspectives of these experiences.
• Typically inductive.
• Often associated with qualitative approaches of data collection and analysis.
INTERPRETIVE STUDIES
