week 1: Intro & Methods

Question 1

What evidence suggests that a fear of snakes can be learned in infancy?

a. Infants look more at a hippo (than a snake) when hearing a “laugh” sound.
b. Infants look equally at a snake and a hippo when hearing a “fear” sound.
c. Infants look more at a snake (than a hippo) regardless of what sound is played.
d. Infants look more at a snake (than a hippo) when hearing a “fear” sound.

Answer 1

d. Infants look more at a snake (than a hippo) when hearing a “fear” sound.
Explanation: Infants only show this pattern after hearing the sound (suggesting they learn the pairing).

Question 2

When researchers claim that infants are ‘surprised’ by an event, or that infants find an event unexpected, surprise is most often measured by:

a. Longer looking times in response to ‘impossible’ vs. ‘possible’ events.
b. Observing longer looking times to events or images that infants ‘like’ or ‘prefer’.
c. Looking to caregivers for confirmation after ‘impossible’ vs ‘possible’ events.
d. Facial muscle movements in response to ‘impossible’ vs ‘possible’ events.

Answer 2

a. Longer looking times in response to ‘impossible’ vs. ‘possible’ events.
Explanation: After seeing something repeat over and over, infants’ attention will be re-engaged when the stimulus seems new, surprising, or unexpected (e.g., impossible)

Question 3

A rat is given a novel food to eat and at the same time hears a loud, novel tone. Then, the rat gets nauseous. Under these conditions, the rat will learn:

a. To avoid both the novel food and the location where the tone was played.
b. To avoid the novel food.
c. To avoid the location where the novel tone was played.
d. Nothing.

Answer 3

b. To avoid the novel food.

Explanation: Rats demonstrate domain-specialized learning; they are more likely to associate certain inputs and outputs. Since foods tend to cause nausea, the rat would form this association.

Question 4

Which of the following is NOT true about specialized learning mechanisms?

a. They are an alternative to a domain general view of learning.
b. There should be a different learning mechanism for all possible problems that humans can reason about.
c. They can be thought of as a Swiss Army Knife: different tools for solving different problems.
d. They likely exist for problems that were relevant in our evolutionary past.

Answer 4

b. There should be a different learning mechanism for all possible problems that humans can reason about.

Explanation: Yes- although humans have multiple learning mechanisms, we do not have one for ALL problems. We have them for evolutionarily relevant problems that all humans faced.

Question 5

What is developmental psychology?

Answer 5

A science involving the description and explanation of changes over time in the structure, thought or behavior of a person.

Question 6

Do you think humans’ fear of snakes is: innate or learned?

Answer 6

Learned: babies are curious and may want to touch it until their parents prohibit it.
Innate: snakes have characteristics that induce fear or are meant to induce fear naturally (rattling, mouth/teeth).

Question 7

Explain the following: Cook & Mineka, 1989

Answer 7

Monkeys reared in the wild are afraid of snakes but monkeys raised in captivity are not
Difference in experience=difference in fear

Question 8

What kind of experience would be required for monkeys in captivity to be afraid of snakes?

Answer 8

Zoo reared monkeys saw monkeys from the wild be afraid of snakes=learned fear even though they did not have a direct experience with snakes themselves

Question 9

Why study developmental psychology?

Answer 9

Answer fundamental questions about the human mind.

Understanding the typical developmental trajectory can influence important aspects of our world.

Question 10

Guiding Theme: Nature vs Nurture

Is Biology Nature or Nurture? Why?

Answer 10

Biology is Nature!

-Genes (from our parents) regulate growth and development of psychological abilities

Question 11

Guiding Theme: Nature vs Nurture: Is Environment Nature or Nurture?

Answer 11

Environment is Nurture!

• Everything else
• Physical World
• Social World

Question 12

Are all fears equally easy or learn? Could we condition baby Albert to be afraid of anything (e.g. umbrellas)?

Answer 12

No, some fears are easier to learn than others

Question 13

What was the method for Fear-Learning in Human Infants? What was learned?

Answer 13

Method: show infants pictures of snakes next to other animals and measure looking

• Infants do not show fear of snakes behaviorally
• Infants preferentially associate fearful voices with snakes

Question 14

Fear-learning: Nature & Nurture

Answer 14

Nature and nurture interact to produce fear learning

• Nature: Humans (and other animals) are predisposed to develop fears for some things more easily than others
• Nurture: Humans (and other animals) do not seem to develop these fears without specific experiences

Question 15

Do babies look longer at a snake during scary soundtrack or with no scary soundtrack?

Answer 15

Babies look longer at snake during scary soundtrack

Question 16

Explain the Stahl and Feigensen Study

Answer 16

Stahl and Feigenson tested their hypothesis that infants use surprising events as special opportunities to learn in a series of experiments with 11-month-old infants. In their first experiment, they showed infants either an expected event or a surprising event.

Question 17

What was concluded from the Stahl and Feigenson study?

Answer 17

The experiments revealed that when infants see an object defy their expectations, they learn about that object better, explore that object more, and test relevant hypotheses for that object’s behavior.

Question 18

What is successful learning?

Answer 18

-Children were assigned to: 
teaching 
exploration 
-Shown how the toy lights up 
-Free Play 
-Tested on all functions 
-More learning in the Exploration Condition

Question 19

Define Core Knowledge (nature)

Answer 19

• Initial structure in place that guides maturation and development (via domain-specific learning mechanisms)
• allows infants to experience new information and enables learning

Question 20

Define Blank Slate(Nurture)

Answer 20

-limited initial structure and learn (via-general purpose learning mechanisms) from experiencing their environment

Question 21

Naturalistic observation

Answer 21

Follow children around and observe natural trends

Question 22

Structured observation

Answer 22

Bring children into a lab/controlled setting and control what toys they have but let them play freely; observe these semi-natural trends

Question 23

Habituation

Answer 23

Make child bored by showing infants the same stimulus repeatedly (attention over time declines)

Question 24

Define Nature vs. Nurture

Answer 24

Biology(nature) and Environment (nurture)

Question 25

What experiment was this:
1920-Watson-classical conditional on a 9 month old baby- white rat was paired with a loud clanking noise resulting in crying and fear of rat

Answer 25

Little Albert Experiment

Question 26

Fear learning in monkeys

Answer 26

Show a monkey a video of a monkey screaming at the sight of a snake, this will cause the monkey watching to develop a fear of snakes as well

Question 27

What are developmental outcomes related to nature?

Answer 27

Core Knowledge
implies that different environments have smaller influences over outcomes
(Different intial state–> same end state)