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Foundations of Medicine Short > Week 1 - Building Blocks I > Flashcards

Week 1 - Building Blocks I Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 basic planes in anatomy?

A

sagittal (splits the body left and right)
coronal (splits the body front and back)
axial (splits the body into superior and inferior portions)

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2
Q

What do the anatomical terms ipsilateral and contralateral mean?

A

ipsilateral = 2 structures being compared lie on the SAME side of the body
contralateral = 2 structures being compared lie on OPPOSITE sides of the body

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3
Q

which is more complex; prokaryotes or eukaryotes?

A

eukaryotes
eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles and are the basis of both unicellular and multicellular organisms
prokaryotes do not have any membrane-bound organisms and are always part of unicellular organisms
(humans are eukaryotes)

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4
Q

what are common features to all eukaryotic cells?

A

outer membrane
inner cytosol
cytoskeleton
membrane bound organelles (essential to life)
inclusions (other structures within the cytoplasm which may or may not have a membrane, dispensable)

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5
Q

in eukaryotes what does the mitochondria do?

A

site of energy production (powerhouse of the cell)

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6
Q

in eukaryotes what does the rough endoplasmic reticulum do?

A

site of protein synthesis

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7
Q

in eukaryotes what does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum do?

A

site of lipid synthesis

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8
Q

in eukaryotes what does the golgi apparatus do?

A

modification and packaging of secretions

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9
Q

in eukaryotes what do the lysosomes do?

A

provide hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion

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10
Q

in eukaryotes what does the nucleus do?

A

contains the genetic code

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11
Q

what are the 3 main classes of filaments that the eukaryote cytoskeleton is composed of?

A

microfilaments
intermediate filaments
microtubules

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12
Q

what are microfilaments composed of?

A

the protein actin

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13
Q

what are intermediate filaments composed of and what do they do?

A

composed of 6 main proteins
bind intracellular elements together and to the plasma membrane

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14
Q

what are microtubules composed of and where do they originate from?

A

composed of 2 tubulin proteins
originate from the centromere

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15
Q

DNA that is in the nucleus can be divided into 2 groups, what are these and what can be said about the DNA in each group?

A

euchromatin = DNA that is dispersed and actively undergoing transcription
heterochromatin = DNA that is highly condensed and not undergoing transcription

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16
Q

what are intracellular junctions?

A

specialised membrane structures which link individual cells together into a functional unit (particularly prominent in epithelial cells)

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17
Q

what are the 3 types of intracellular junctions and what do they do?

A

occluding (link cells to form a diffusion barrier)
anchoring (provide mechanical strength)
communicating or gap (allow selective movement of molecules between cells)

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18
Q

what are 3 main ways that material can move across the cell membrane?

A

diffusion
via transport proteins (pumps or channels)
by incorporation into vesicles (vesicular transport)

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19
Q

what is endocytosis?

A

a general term describing a process by which cells absorb external material by engulfing it with the cell membrane
exocytosis is the opposite (releasing material from the cell)

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20
Q

phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis, explain the process?

A

bacteria or larger material from the extracellular space can be incorporated into the cell by phagocytosis
the bacterium binds to cell surface receptors
this triggers extensions of the cell to engulf it forming a phagosome
the phagosome then binds with a lysosome carrying digestive enzymes
this produces a phagolysosome

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21
Q

are the following process active or passive:
diffusion
osmosis?

A

diffusion = passive (high to low concentration)
osmosis = active (low to high concentration)

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22
Q

what are the stages of the cell cycle in order?

A

G1 phase (part of interphase)
S phase (part of interphase)
G2 phase (part of interphase)
prophase (part of mitosis phase)
metaphase (part of mitosis phase)
anaphase (part of mitosis phase)
telophase (part of mitosis phase)
cytokinesis

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23
Q

what are the 3 cell cycle protein molecules, and what part of the cell cycle are each of them involved at?

A

cyclin A = S phase
cyclin B = G2 phase
cyclin E = G1 phase

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24
Q

what do cyclins activate in the cell cycle?

A

CDK’s (cyclin dependent kinases)

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25
Q

what is synthesised during the S phase of the cell cycle, and why is this necessary?

A

DNA is synthesised
this is necessary to ensure that there are enough genes for 2 daughter cells

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26
Q

what happens during the 4 stages of mitosis?

A

prophase = chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane disappears
metaphase = chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (MIDDLE)
anaphase = sister chromatids separate from each other, this forms 2 identical and complete chromosomes (AWAY)
telophase = daughter chromosomes are enveloped by new nuclear membrane, cytoplasm divides and 2 complete cells are formed

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27
Q

what is cytokinesis and when does it occur?

A

the physical separation of the 2 daughter cells
happens at the end of the cell cycle (after telophase)

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28
Q

what is meant by the term non-disjunction in regards to the cell cycle?

A

abnormal function of spindle apparatus causes 1 or more chromosomes to fail to migrate properly
1 daughter cell receives extra chromosomes

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29
Q

what is meant by the term isochromosome in regards to the cell cycle?

A

if the centromere splits transversely (up and down) instead of longitudinally (left and right) it is known as isochromosome
leads to the formation of 2 daughter cells of unequal length

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30
Q

what are the 4 basic tissue types?

A

epithelium
connective tissue
muscle
nervous tissue

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31
Q

what does epithelium tissue do?

A

covers surfaces of the body or lines hollow organs

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32
Q

epithelium tissue can be classified based on cell shape, what are the 3 cell shapes of epithelia?

A

squamous (flattened)
cuboidal (cube)
columnar (tall and thin)

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33
Q

epithelium tissue can be classified based on the number of layers present, what are the 2 classifications based on this?

A

single = 1 layer
stratified = 2 or more layers

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34
Q

what are 3 examples of cell surface, or tissue surface, specialisations that epithelia can have?

A

prominent microvilli (these increase surface are)
cilia
presence of layers of keratin proteins

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35
Q

what do glandular epithelia do and what are the 2 classifications?

A

produce secretory products, e.g. sweat, mucous etc
can either be endocrine or exocrine

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36
Q

what does connective tissue do?

A

forms the framework of the body

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37
Q

what is the type of connective tissue determined by?

A

the types and relative amounts of extracellular matrix and cells

38
Q

what are the 3 types of connective tissue?

A

soft (can be either loose or dense)
hard
blood and lymph

39
Q

what 2 things are made of soft connective tissue?

A

tendons and ligaments

40
Q

what 2 things are made of hard connective tissue?

A

bone and cartilage

41
Q

how can cartilage be described?

A

strong, flexible and semi-rigid
it is avascular and receives nutrients by diffusion through the matrix

42
Q

what are the 2 types of bone tissue?

A

cortical bone = dense outer shell
cancellous bone = spongy structure typically found at the end of bones

43
Q

what are the 3 types of muscle cells?

A

smooth
skeletal
cardiac

44
Q

smooth muscle tissue can be said to be involuntary and visceral, what do these terms mean?

A

involuntary = not under conscious control
visceral = mostly found in organs

45
Q

skeletal muscle tissue can be said to be voluntary and striated, what do these terms mean?

A

voluntary = responds to conscious control
striated = attached to the skeleton

46
Q

what are the 2 things that nervous tissue consists of?

A

neurons and glia (support cells)

47
Q

what does nervous tissue allow for?

A

rapid communication between different parts of the body

48
Q

what are the 3 main types of neurons?

A

multipolar
bipolar
pseudo unipolar

49
Q

what are the 3 main roles of glia?

A

support ion transport
produce myelin in the brain and spinal cord
provide immune surveillance

50
Q

there are 3 major salivary glands in the digestive tract, what are these?

A

parotid
submandibular
sublingual

51
Q

the digestive tract is composed of 4 major layers, what are these (from innermost to outermost)?

A

mucosa
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa or adventitia

52
Q

what are the 3 sublayers of the mucosa (innermost layer of GI tract)?

A

epithelium (innermost)
lamina propria (loose connective tissue, contains blood vessels and lymphatic vessels)
muscularis mucosae (thin layer of smooth muscle, helps with movement and folding)

53
Q

what is the muscularis externa (layer of the GI tract) composed of and what does it do?

A

2 thick layers of smooth muscle
helps move food through the digestive tract

54
Q

what is the submucosa (layer of the GI tract) made of and what does it do?

A

loose connective tissue
regulates the mucosa and supplies it with nutrients

55
Q

what is the serosa/adventitia (outermost layer of GI tract) made of and what does it do?

A

connective tissue
either suspends the digestive tract or attaches it to other organs

56
Q

the digestive tissue has its own nervous system, what is it called?

A

the enteric nervous system

57
Q

what kind of cartilage do bronchi have in their airway?

A

hyaline

58
Q

bronchioles have no cartilage in there walls, what is predominantly there instead?

A

smooth muscle

59
Q

what are alveoli made of?

A

squamous (flattened) epithelial cells

60
Q

what can the liver be organised into?

A

a large number of lobules each with a hexagonal arrangement

61
Q

what can be found at each corner of a liver lobules?

A

branches of the hepatic vein and artery

62
Q

what is another name for liver cells?

A

hepatocytes

63
Q

what is the function of the exocrine pancreas?

A

produces digestive juices to break down proteins, lipids, DNA/RNA etc

64
Q

what is the function of the endocrine pancreas?

A

produces a number of hormones including insulin

65
Q

where would you find elastic arteries and why?

A

very close to the heart
they carry a lot of blood

66
Q

what are the 3 basic layers of blood vessels and what are they made of?

A

tunica intima (inner layer) = single layer of squamous epithelial cells
tunica media (middle layer) = predominantly smooth muscle
tunica adventitia (outer layer) = supporting connective tissue

67
Q

in blood vessels what separates the tunica intima and the tunica media?

A

the internal elastic membrane

68
Q

in blood vessels what separates the tunica media and the tunica adventitia?

A

the external elastic membrane

69
Q

why are elastic arteries called that?

A

in these arteries a significant amount of the smooth muscle in the tunica media is replaced by sheets of elastic fibres

70
Q

elastic arteries have their own vascular system, what is it called?

A

vasa vasorum

71
Q

what can be said about the layers of arterioles?

A

they have only 1 or 2 layers of smooth muscle (tunica media) and almost no tunica adventitia

72
Q

what are the 3 types of capillaries?

A

continuous
fenestrated (have small pores)
discontinuous or sinusoidal (have large gaps)

73
Q

what are venules important sites of?

A

gas and nutrient exchange

74
Q

many small veins have valves, why is this?

A

to prevent the backflow of blood

75
Q

how can blood be separated?

A

spinning it in a centrifuge

76
Q

what are the 3 main components of blood?

A

red blood cells (erythrocytes)
white blood cells (leukocytes)
plasma

77
Q

what shape are red blood cells?

A

biconcave discs

78
Q

what is the iron containing protein that takes up 1/3 of a red blood cells volume?

A

haemoglobin

79
Q

what is a haematocrit a proportion of?

A

haematocrit = proportion of the blood that is red blood cells

80
Q

what are the 5 types of white blood cells?

A

neutrophils (40-75%)
eosinophils (5%)
basophils (0.5%)
lymphocytes (20-50%)
monocytes (1-5%)

81
Q

what kind of nucleus do eosinophiles typically have and what do they play an important role in?

A

typically have a bilobed nucleus
play an important role in fighting parasitic infections

82
Q

what do basophils do?

A

act as an affecter in allergic reactions
receptors in their cell membrane are directed against a particular allergen and when this binds their antigen is stimulated
this leads to hayfever, allergic asthma etc

83
Q

what are the 2 classes of lymphocytes?

A

B cells and T cells

84
Q

where do T cell lymphocytes differentiate?

A

in the thymus gland (found between the lungs)

85
Q

what do neutrophils do?

A

they circulate the blood stream in an inactive state, but if they are stimulated for example by bacteria, they enter the tissue where they are highly motile phagocytes

86
Q

what shape are monocytes and where in the body are they mostly found?

A

kidney bean shaped
mostly found in loose connective tissue

87
Q

what do platelets play a key role in?

A

haemostasis (prevention of blood loss)

88
Q

do platelets have a nucleus?

A

no but they do have a well-developed cytoskeleton

89
Q

what is haemopoiesis?

A

the production of blood cells and platelets

90
Q

at birth where is the main site of haemopoiesis (blood production)?

A

the bone marrow
this shuts down however in many bones as they enlarge

91
Q
A

Foundations of Medicine Short (2 decks)

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