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Integrative Physiology > Week 1: Blood and Blood Cells > Flashcards

Week 1: Blood and Blood Cells Flashcards

1
Q

Blood consists of what two main componenets?

A

Blood = Plasma + Formed Elements

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2
Q

What are the 3 main functions of blood?

A
  1. Communication
  2. Transportation
  3. Organism Preservation
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3
Q

What are the main characteristics of blood?

A
  • More Viscous than water, flows slower
  • pH 7.4 (7.35-7.45)
  • 8% of total body weight
  • Blood Volume of 5-6L in average male and 4-5L in average female
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4
Q

What does the term hematocrit refer to?

A

The proportion of the blood that consists of packed red blood cells in relation to plasma.

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5
Q

What does the Haematocrit contain?

A

Haematocrit:

  • 55% plasma
  • 45% cells where 99% of those cells are RBCs and less than 1% are WBCs and Platelettes
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6
Q

What are the formed elements of blood?

A
  • RBCs
  • WBCs
  • Platelets
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7
Q

What WBCs are considered Granulocytes?

A

Granular Leukocytes:

- Neutrophils

- Eosinophils

- Basophils

Agranular Leukocytes:

  • Lymphocytes (T, B and NK cells)
  • Monocytes
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8
Q

What does the blood plasma compose of?

A
  • Over 90% water
  • 7% Plasma Proteins
  • 2% other substances (gases, nutrients, hormones etc.)
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9
Q

What are the 3 main plasma proteins?

A
  • Albumins 60%
  • Fibrinogen 4%
  • Globulins 36%
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10
Q

Where are albumins made and what do they do?

A
  • Made in liver
  • Maintain osmotic pressure (most abundant)
  • important buffer and carrier protein
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11
Q

What is Fibrinogen?

A
  • Soluble precurser to fibrin
  • Aids clot framework
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12
Q

Where are alpha and beta glubulins synthesised? What do they do?

A
  • Produced in liver
  • Function as enzymes and transport proteins
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13
Q

Where are gammaglobulins synthesised and what do they do?

A
  • Synthesised by plasma B-Cells in immune system
  • Function as antibodies that are released during an immune response
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14
Q

What are the main physical characterisctics, functions, Haematocrit (M + F), Lifespan of the erythrocyte?

A
  • Biconcave disc (7-8μm) Anuculear, limited organells,
  • Transport O2 as Haemoglobin
  • M: 47± 5%, F: 42± 5%
  • 120 Day lifespan
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15
Q

Explain haemoglobin for the Embryo, Foetus, at Birth and at roughly 6 months postnatal?

A

Embryo: Primitive Haemoglobins

Foetus: Haemoglobin F (alpha 2 and gamma 2)

At birth: ≈70-80% HbF

- Replaced slowly from birth -

At about 6 Months: “adult” haemoglobin (alpha 2 beta 2)

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16
Q

What are the normal ranges of haemoglobin for infants male and female?

A

Infants: 14-20g/100ml

Male: 13-18g/100ml

Female: 12-16g/100ml

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17
Q

What is Anaemia?

A

When Hb falls below certain range for age and sex usually due to a reduction in O2 oxygen capacity.

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18
Q

Why is the adaptive shape important for erythrocytes?

A
  • Diffusion
  • Osmolarity Changes (hypotonic, Isotonic, hypertonic)
  • Rouleaux (cell stacking
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19
Q

What are the components of a haemoglobin molecule?

A
  • Alpha polypetide chains
  • Beta Polypeptide chains
  • Heme Molecule (contains Fe2+)
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20
Q

Explain what happens to Globin during Haemoglobin Recycling?

A

Macrophage Breaks down Old/Damaged RBC (In Spleen, Liver, or Red Bone Marrow) releasing Globin and Heme. Globin is broken down into amino acids. Amino Acids recycled for protein synthesis.

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21
Q

Explain what happens to Haem component: Biliverdin in Haemoglobin Recycling?

A

RBC Phagocytosis by macrophage (In Spleen, Liver or Red Bone Marrow) releasing Heme + Globin. Heme split into Iron (Fe3+) and Biliverdin (green pigment). Billiverdin is converted to Bilirubin (Yellow pigment). Billirubin is secreted by liver into bile. In large intestine, Bilirubin is converted to urobilinogen, then stercobilin. Can be excreted in Faeces OR reabsorbed back into the blood to be converted into Urobilin (yellow pigment contributes to urine colour) in kidneys and then excreted in urine.

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22
Q

Explain what happens to the haem component: Iron (Fe3+) during haemoglobin recycling?

A

RBC Phagocytosis by macrophage (In Spleen, Liver or Red Bone Marrow) releasing Heme + Globin. Heme split into Iron (Fe3+) and Biliverdin. Iron is transported in blood by transferrin protein. Stored in liver, Muscles or spleen as Ferritin. When needed, Transferrin transferes iron back to bone marrow to be used again for RBC synthesis.

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23
Q

What is the general reason males typically have a higher haematocrit than females?

A

More muscle mass must have a higher haematocrit as males must have a greater capacity to carry oxygen in order to supply the greater muscle mass.

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24
Q

What does the term haemopoiesis mean?

A

The production of blood cells

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25
Q

What does the term erythropoeisis mean?

A

The formation of red blood cells

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26
Q

Where does erythropoeisis take place?

A

Red bone marrow in:

  • Flat bones
  • Irregular bones
  • Cancellous material at proximal ends of long bones
27
Q

What is tissue hypoxia? how is it regulated?

A

Decrease oxygen delivery to tissues normally due to altitude or aneamia:

Kidneys dectect a decrease of oxygen and respond by secreting EPO into blood. EPO causes proerythroblasts in red bone marrow to mature quickly into reticulocytes. More reticulocytes can now enter blood and mature into RBCs and therefore increase the ammount of oxygen circulating through the body resulting in an increase in oxygen delivery to tissues.

28
Q

Main Characteristics of leukocytes:

A
  • Nucleus
  • No Haemoglobin
  • For defense and Reticulo-Endothelial System
  • Found in lymphoid tissue or loose connective tissue
  • Lifespan: between a few hours or weeks
  • Granular or agranular
29
Q

What are the main functions of the different granulocytes?

A
  • Neutrophils: Phagocytosis
  • Basophils: Inflamatory response and Allergic reactions
  • Eosinophils: Allergic reactions and Parasitic infections
30
Q

What are the main functions of the different agranulocytes?

A

Monocytes: Macrophages (fixed and wandering)

Lymphocytes: Immune Response (T and B cells)

31
Q

What are the two main types of lymphocytes and what is their function?

A

T Cells: Cell mediated immunity and antigen processing

B cells: Humoral/Antibody mediated immunity. Become plasma cells that produce antibodies.

32
Q

What are thrombocytes derived from? What is their function? What is their lifespan? What regulates them?

A
  • Derived from megakaryocyte cell fragments
  • Contain chemicals for blood clotting (Serotonin, Ca2+, Enzymes, ADP)
  • 5-10 Day lifespan
  • Formation regulated by TPO produced in liver
33
Q

What are agglutinogens?

A
  • Iso-Antigens on RBC surface that are genetically determined. These markers are used for blood grouping.
34
Q

What are agglutinins?

A
  • Iso-Antibodies (proteins known as gamma-globulins) produced by B Lymphocytes.
35
Q

What are the two different types of blood grouping systems?

A

ABO and Rhesus system

36
Q

What are the two agglutinogens and how do they determine blood group?

A

2 Agglutinogens: A and B

A antigen only : Type A

B antigen only : Type B

A and B antigen : Type AB

Neither A or B antigen : Type O

37
Q

How are blood groups/types related to inheritance?

A

Blood type gene has 2 alleles and each has a Genotype A, B or O. The A and B are dominant and the O is recessive. Therefor, Allele A combined with Allele O is type A (vice Versa with Allele B and O)

38
Q

Fill in the Blood type possibilities for the child of the parents of different combinations?

A
39
Q

What Agglutinins could you have circulating with the 4 possible blood types:

A, B, AB, or O

?

A

A = Anti-b

B = Anti-a

AB = No agglutinins

O = Both Anti-a and Anti-b

40
Q

What is the Rhesus System?

A

Rh Agglutinogens (D Antigens)

  • Possitive (Rh Agglutinogens present)
  • Negative (Rh Agglutinogens Absent)

(only refers to marker on the cell, There is no anti-d Isoantibodies present)

41
Q

What is Erythroblastosis Foetalis?

A

If mother is Rh- and father is Rh+ and the developing foetus is Rh+ then during birth hemorrhaging at delivery will cause the maternal and foetal blood to mix. The maternal Rh- blood will make antibodies for the D antigen. Problems would occur with second pregnancy during placental transfusion of D-Antibodies as they would basically destroy the developing foetus’s RBC’s causing death or severe and chronic anaemia.

42
Q

What does the term haemostasis mean?

A

Stoppage of bleeding in a quick and localised manner when blood vessels are damged. This aids to prevent haemorrhaging.

43
Q

What are the Methods utilised for Haemostasis?

A
  • Vascular spasm
  • Platelet plug formation
  • Blood clotting (coagulation)
44
Q

What is a vascular spasm?

A

Damage to small blood vessels or arterioles initiates both nervous and myogenic responses causing reflex contraction of smooth muscle in small blood vessels. This helps to reduce blood loss until other machanisms take over.

45
Q

What are the three steps involved in the platelet plug formation? what happens with each step?

A
  1. Platelet Adhesion = Platelets stick to exposed collagen underlying damaged edothelial cells in vessel wall
  2. Platelet Release Reaction = Platelets activated by adhesion and extend their projection to net with each other. They release Thromboxane A2 and ADP which activate more platelets. Serotonin and Thromboxane A2 act as vasoconstrictors.
  3. Platelet aggregation = Activated platelets stick together activating new platelets to form a mass called a platelet plug. This begins the clotting process.
46
Q

What is a thrombosis?

A

When clotting occurs in an ubroken vessel.

47
Q

What cation most required for blood clotting?

A

Ca2+

48
Q

What is blood clotting?

A

Blood clotting is a cascade of reactions in which each clotting factor activates the next in a fixed sequence resulting in the formation of fibrin threads

49
Q

What happens during the three essential steps involved in blood clotting?

A
  1. Prothrombinase is formed in response to the rupturing of a vessel or to damage of blood itself.
  2. Prothrombinase catalyses the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
  3. Thrombin acts as an enzyme to convert fibrinogen into fibrin threads that enmeshes the platelets, blood cells and plasma proteins to form the bloodclot
50
Q

What complex marks the beggining of the common pathway for the intrinsic and extrinsic pathway? and what is the outcome product of the final common pathway?

A

Prothrombinase.

Final common pathway produces fibrin threads.

51
Q

What happens during the extrinsic pathway in blood clotting?

A
  1. Damaged blood vessels leak blood into surrounding tissues.
  2. Damaged tissues leak tissue factor (thromboplastin) into blood stream.
  3. In the presence of Ca2+ clotting factor X combined with factor V to form prothrombinase.

This happens within seconds

52
Q

What happens during the Intrinsic pathway?

A
  1. Endothelium is damaged and platelets come into contact with collagen fibres of blood vessel wall.
  2. Platelets become damaged and release phospholipids

This takes several minutes and requires Ca2+ , and Clotting Factors XII, X and V

53
Q

What happens during the final common pathway of blood clotting?

A

Prothrombinase and Ca2+ Catalyse the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. Thrombin, in the presense of calcium converts soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fribrin threads. This activates fribrin stabilizing factor 12.

54
Q

What are the 4 main effects of thrombin?

A
  1. Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin
  2. Activation of Factor XIII that stabilizes the fibrin meshwork of the clot.
  3. Positive feedback activation of more prothrombin into thrombin
  4. Enhancement of platelet aggregation that secretes PF3, which stimulates the clotting cascade resulting in thrombin activation.
55
Q

Explain the clot retraction involved in blood vessel repair?

A
  1. Clot plugs the ruptured area of blood vessel
  2. Platelets pull of fibrin threads causing clot retraction
  3. The trapped platelets release factor XIII that stabalises the fibrin threads
  4. Edges of damaged vessel are pulled together
  5. Fibroblasts and endothelial cells repar the blood vessel
56
Q

How does a thrombosis form?

A
  • When blood flows too slowly (stasis) this can allow for clotting factors to build up on the rough inner lining of blood vessels and cause coagulation.
57
Q

How can aspirin help to avoid thrombosis?

A

Low dose aspirin blocks synthesis of thromboxane A2 and Reduces inappropriate clot formation.

58
Q

What is the fibrinolytic system? and what are the steps involved?

A

A fibrinolytic system dissolves small, inappropriate clots and clots at a site of a completed repair.

  1. Inactive plasminogen is incorperated into the clot
  2. Plasminogen becomes plasmin
  3. Plasmin digests fibrin threads
  4. Fibrin absorbs thrombin
  5. Blood disperses clotting factors
  6. Endothelial cells and WBC produce prostacyclin that opposes thromboxane A2
59
Q

What endothelial surface factors prevent blood clotting?

A
  • The smoothness of the endothelium itself
  • The monomolecular layer of protein absorbed on the inner surface of the endothelium that repels clotting factors and platelets.
  • Prostacyclin and nitric oxide that inhibit platelet aggregation
60
Q

What do anticoagulants do?

A

Supress or prevent blood clotting

61
Q

What is haemophilia A and B? who does it affect? what are the symptoms?

A
  • Inability to form blood clots
  • Type A - caused by a deficiency of factor VIII (85%)
  • Type B - Factor XI deficiency (10-15%)
  • Men only
  • Symptoms: Haematuria and bleeding from the mouth
62
Q

Why would a vitamin K deficiency affect blood clotting?

A

Because Vitamin K is required for synthesis of factors II, VII, IX, X.

63
Q

What is thrombocytopoenia?

A

Condition caused through having Low levels of platelets that causes people to struggle with clotting.

Integrative Physiology (9 decks)

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