Week 1-An Introduction to the Lifespan Perspective on Ageing

Question 1

Define Gerontology

Answer 1

The scientific study of individual and collective aging processes (adopts a lifespan perspective)

o Gerontologists work to support + improve the lives of older adults, and against discrimination

Question 2

What is the History on the Psychology of Ageing?

Answer 2

◦ 1922, Hall’s “Senescence: The Second Half of Life” marked the beginning of a greater focus on ageing psychology

◦ Late 1930s, chronic disease>infectious diseases seen more as a significant threat to health and survival.

◦ 1940s-, various centres for ageing research established

◦ Ageing still remains an uneasy topic (due to the complexities of ageing issues and link between death and advancing age i.e., it’s scary)

-Gradually moved from aged to differences in age and now this + the process of change (i.e., longitudinal and the lifespan perspective)

Question 3

Define Chronological Age

Answer 3

A method to describe the age of someone by how old a person actually is (through year they’ve been alive)

◦ Not useful for understanding physical or psychological experience of ageing!

Question 4

What is Ageism?

Answer 4

Discrimination on the basis of age

“There is no magic age when your attitude and treatment of people should change. The Peterborough Council on Aging partnered with Brand Health to develop a marketing campaign that aimed to change
people’s thinking about aging and how we often have a negative impression of people once they reach a certain age, such as 60, 65 or older.” (The Peterborough (CA, USA) Council on Ageing)

Question 5

Define Biological Age

Answer 5

A general term which encompasses physiological processes associated with aging e.g. loss of muscle strength and endurance, wrinkling of the skin due to loss of collagen and elastin.

Question 6

Define Social Age

Answer 6

How you are treated and categorised by
society and is linked to societal expectations.

Question 7

Define Psychological Age

Answer 7

It’s more complex; how old you feel
and think you are

Question 8

How can Ageing be classified into systems?

Answer 8

There are classifications by the probability of acquiring particular characteristics of later life:
◦ Primary (universal) v. secondary ageing (not universal e.g., smoking) (v. tertiary)
◦ Universal v. probabilistic ageing

Some divide up different periods of adult life:
◦ ‘Young-old’ and ‘oldest-old’
◦ Third age (more independent, active) and Fourth age (more dependent)

So, ‘how old are you?’ can actually be quite a tricky question to answer!

Question 9

What influences ageing experiences?

Answer 9

So many factors influence longevity and experiences of ageing:
* From micro level (genetics/biological) to macro level (societal/political e.g., healthcare/social care systems)
* From biological to social

Value of an ecological approach, acknowledging different levels of influence (e.g., Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Dahlgren and Whitehead, 1991, Donnellan et al., 2015)

Influences:
* Individual level e.g. genetics, lifestyle, SES, gender, personality, health, mobility
* Community level e.g. housing, assistive technologies, transport, social facilities
* Societal level e.g. culture, socio-historical influences

Question 10

What is the lifespan perspective?

Answer 10

A perspective which recognises ageing as shaped by a complex interaction between
biological, psychological, sociocultural and life-cycle factors (Historical context is also an important determinant).

A lifespan perspective places adult development and ageing into a broader context of whole human experience (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006):
o Recognises adult development as both growth and decline; as losses and gains

o That people have the potential to learn, adapt and gain skills, throughout life

o Role of historical context in shaping development

o The great diversity in experiences and outcomes related to increased age, shaped by biological, psychological, sociocultural and life-cycle forces

Question 11

How do the Research Methods for studying Ageing differ?

Answer 11

-Are we investigating Age differences (comparisons between at least 2 different people) OR Age changes (changes in an individual over time)?

Static:
-Capture a single, specific period
-Compare by age in a cross sectional design
-Tend to show large (artificially?) age difference

Dynamic:
-Understand process of change i.e. what happens as a person ages
-Longitudinal designs, showing age changes

Question 12

What are 3 key considerations when using research methods to study ageing?

Answer 12

1. Age effects: Due to the consequences of being a particular chronological age (e.g. age of majority)
2. Cohort (generational) effects: Normative history-graded influences - The consequences of being born in a particular year and having grown up during a particular time (leaving school at 14, experiencing world wars, nutrition etc)
3. Time of measurement effects: The consequences of the measure being taken at a particular point in time (Role of social, historical and political context at point of data collection)

Question 13

Name the 3 Common Types of Survey Designs

Answer 13

1. Cross-sectional
2. Longitudinal
3. Cohort-sequential

Question 14

What is a Cross-Sectional Survey?

Answer 14

◦ Groups of different chronological ages are
compared on set measures at a set point in time e.g., When we want to know whether old people are more conservative than young people

◦ Examines age differences rather than age change

◦ -ives? Confound age and cohort; confound
age and time of measurement

Question 15

What is a Longitudinal Survey?

Answer 15

◦ Follows a single cohort over a period of time, demonstrating age changes e.g., Whether people in a specific group become more or less conservative with age

◦ Eliminates cohort effects

◦ -ives? Attrition/selection effects; practice effects; time of measurement effects; terminal drop

Question 16

What is a Cohort-Sequential Survey?

Answer 16

◦ Combines elements of cross-sectional and
longitudinal designs e.g., Whether or not old people are more conservative than young
people at one point in time, over time and/or across different cohorts

◦ One example: A cross-sectional study carried out at two or more different time points, allowing the researcher to tease out
age-related effects from potential confounds of particular periods in sociocultural history

Question 17

What are some Theoretical Perspectives on Ageing?

Answer 17

There was (and still is) an implicit view of ageing as all ‘bad’
◦ People put off calling themselves old
◦ Public discourse of older people being a burden to society
◦ ‘Crisis’ of an ageing population

Some of the earlier theories reflect this
◦ More recently, development of theories focused on ageing and adaptation to understand differential ageing, and what influences ‘successful’ ageing

Question 18

What do theoretical models of ageing offer?

Answer 18

oOffers perspectives on psychosocial development across the lifecourse

oTheories that are validated through research help to systematise what is known
and explain the how and the why behind the what of our data (Putney & Bengtson, 2008)

oGuides research questions and hypotheses, and helps explain research findings

oInforms practice of people working with adults approaching later stages of life (i.e., impacts healthcare, policies and practises)

Question 19

What is the Psychosocial Theory? (Erikson, 1950)

Answer 19

35-65 Middle age stage: Generativity vs stagnation (Psychosocial crisis) care (Psychosocial strength) family and society (Environmental influence)

Over 65 Old age stage: Integrity vs despair (Psychosocial crisis) wisdom (Psychosocial strength) all humans (Environmental influence)

-Note apparently “everyone” above 65 is old and has the same experiences (implying the older we get the more homogenised and less unique our experiences are i.e., is reductionist and also very westernised even if people do view life as stages)

-To develop as a person, one must succeed overcoming all the psychosocial crises in each stage of ageing

Question 20

What is the Disengagement Theory? (Cumming & Henry, 1961)

Answer 20

oA determined, inevitable, irreversible and gradual tendency to disengage and withdraw from social roles and activities

Increased preoccupation with self and decreased involvement with others + Society’s tendency to reject older adults =
Decreased interaction between older
person and others in social systems

oAssociated with harmony and satisfaction

oVariation in timing and style depends on the individual’s health, personality, earlier
type of engagement in social life and the life situation

oIssues? Limited evidence; adds to ageist stereotypes; doesn’t account for living situations i.e., facilities in a city vs the countryside

Question 21

What is the Activity Theory? (Havighurst, 1961)

Answer 21

oAge related losses should be substituted with new roles, interests or people – that disengagement in one area leads to engagement in other areas

oOlder adults have similar psychosocial needs as others of a different age

oArgues that ongoing active participation is vital to wellbeing

oOlder adults keep physically active and healthy as a result of their significant
social engagement

oSelf-concept is affirmed though activities associated with various forms of role
support

oIssues? Positive ageism – might force roles and activities on those who prefer to withdraw or cannot due to health reasons (so again very reductionist)

Question 22

What is ‘Successful Ageing’? (Rowe & Kahn, 1998)

Answer 22

Identifies three components of successful ageing:
1. Absence or avoidance of disease and risk factors for disease
2. Maintenance of physical and cognitive functioning
3. Active engagement with life

Issues:
oDisease free older age is unrealistic for most people (especially to hit all 3)
oSuccessful ageing as a concept varies for individuals + cultural differences with variations in resources to maintain successful ageing (when this theory victim blames in a way)
oDoesn’t really acknowledge capacity for ongoing change and development
oAcademic vs. lay perceptions: “A definition of successful ageing needs to include
elements that matter to elderly people” (Bowling & Dieppe, 2005, p.1548

Question 23

What is Socioemotional selectivity theory? (Carstensen, 2000s)

Answer 23

oRelated to emotional self-regulation in later life (become more mindful and changing priorities of things that don’t serve us)

oChanging time horizons affect older adults’ preferences – shift towards emotionally rewarding relationships, maximising social gains and minimising social risks

oExplains a well observed positivity effect- a preference for positive over negative stimuli in cognitive processing

Use of cognitive control strategies:
◦ E.g. selecting a situation by its expected emotional outcome
◦ Modifying the emotional impact or meaning of a situation
◦ Focusing on select aspects of a situation

Question 24

What is Selective optimisation with compensation? (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; PSYC230)

Answer 24

oDeveloped in the context of successful ageing but applies elsewhere

oSuccessful ageing viewed as doing the best with what one has

oBehavioural self-regulation to cope with age-related constraints

oAppraising and redefining goals, being more selective to favour activities that
are most meaningful or rewarding (loss oriented) and optimising resources and compensating for losses (resource-oriented)