Watery world

Question 1

What are the 3 ways in which we use water?

Answer 1

1 agriculture - especially in irrigation
2 industry - for cooling machinery, in food and drink manufacture, for energy production etc
3 domestic - in our homes, for drinking, washing etc

Question 2

What is the average water consumption percentage in each of the 3 sectors for HICs and LICs?

Answer 2

HIC:
39% = agriculture
47% = industry
14% = domestic

LIC:
91% = agriculture
5% = industry
4% = domestic

Question 3

What are the 3 main reasons for why water consumption differs between LICs and HICs?

Answer 3

1 income level
2 industry
3 domestic

Question 4

Explain why water consumption in LICs and HICs differs because of income level:

Answer 4

• agricultural use in LICs are very inefficient, with lots of water being added to the fields via irrigation channels and by flooding water in fields…
• …a lot of water is wasted as it runs off the surface, drains or evaporates
• in HICs, irrigation is far more efficient (more targeted with less waste) because they use sprinklers and drip feeds in order to supply just enough water to the right places at the right time but this is expensive so only they can access this increased efficiency

Question 5

Explain why water consumption in LICs and HICs differs because of industry:

Answer 5

• there is a lot less industry in LICs and many industrial units are very small scale (cottage industries) which use very little water in production methods (not enough money for large scale industries)
• in HICs it’s very different - large scale industries use a lot of water in just cooling the machinery and equipment
• some water is used in the final product of food and drink

Question 6

How does water consumption in a country change as it becomes wealthier?

Answer 6

• as a country becomes wealthier and more developed, the demand for water increases
• growing levels of industrialisation and greater use of machinery increase the demand for water in industry
• boosted further by higher standards of living with an increase in food and drink consumption
• the demand for domestic water grows too, with more and more labour-saving devices such as dish washers and washing machines being used
• there are also more cars to be washed and gardens to be watered
• also, higher standards of living lead to greater numbers of leisure products such as swimming pools and hot tubs being installed in the home
• higher standards of personal hygiene creates a “showering society” where people are showering more e.g.in the morning, after sport, going out
• these activities add large volumes of water to society consumption

Question 7

Explain why water consumption in LICs and HICs differs because of domestic use?

Answer 7

• HIC homes have a piped water supply and have baths, showers and flush toilets - there are also many washing machines and dishwashers
• in HICs there are also leisure uses such as swimming pools
• LICs water is brought in manually from wells or communal taps - washing of anything is mostly done in rivers and water waste is minimalised by short supply

Question 8

Why does the growth of leisure mean more water consumption?

Answer 8

• the growth of leisure and tourism leads to more water being used
• this includes: water parks, spas, swimming pools and watering the growing number of golf courses that are being opened
• some golf courses and other attractions which require water are being built in very dry areas which needs high water maintenance e.g. golf course built in the desert of Las Vegas

Question 9

What are aquifers?

Answer 9

deep layers or large bodies of rock which can hold substantial quantities of water
where water can settle in large porous rock which acts as a sponge such as chalk or sandstone (the highest level in an aquifer is known as a water table)

Question 10

How is water extracted from aquifers?

Answer 10

by drilling wells or boreholes down to the aquifers and using a pump
in some cases they allow water to rise to the surface under its own pressure

Question 11

How much rainfall enters the London aquifer and how much is lost?

Answer 11

• chalk aquifers around the river Thames basin were used to supply water to London
• the chalk hills of the Chilterns, the Berkshre Downs and the North Downs are all important water sources
• rainfall in these places is about 750mm per year and half of this enters the chalk
• the rest is lost to evaporation or runs off the surface…
• …this water travels underground, making its way to nearby rivers or emerging as springs
• the amount of water stored in London (400 billion litres +) is more than double that of Kielder water (200 billion litres)

Question 12

What was the water extraction in London up to the 1960s

Answer 12

water extracted from the chalk industry was about 480 million litres per day

Question 13

What have the water levels in London been like since the 1960s?

Answer 13

• the high levels of water extraction caused water levels in the centre of London to drop by 65 metres
• as industrial industry declined the amount of water being extracted dropped to 380 million litres per day and remained stable until the 1990s
• as a result of reduced extraction, the water levels in the chalk started to rise again

Question 14

What are the concerns over ground water levels rising (in London?

Answer 14

• concern about flooding of deep basements and tunnels
• another concern is that the rising groundwater levels beneath London will cause the ground around deep foundations for tall buildings to become softer

Question 15

What is being done to stabilise water levels in London?

Answer 15

• extraction has increased to stabilise the levels

- ground water began to slow naturally (rise) as water levels depression began to fill up

Question 16

What is the example of a river in Florida used for water extraction?

Answer 16

the Peace River

water has been taken since the 1980s

Question 17

How many people are supplied with water from the Peace river?

Answer 17

supplies adequate water supplies for an ever-growing population of more than 750,000 people in the local region
an average of 70 million litres of water is taken a day to be supplied to local customers

Question 18

How is the water treated at the Peace river?

Answer 18

treated at a treatment plant near Fort Ogden which has the capacity to treat up to 90 million litres of water per day

Question 19

Where is treated water from the Peace river in Florida stored and why does this happen?

Answer 19

• treated water is injected into an aquifer which acts as a natural storage tank underground where the water can be recovered as needed
• it is the ideal method for seasonal water demands as it allows water to be withdrawn from the river during wet months and stored during dry months when river levels are lower

Question 20

At the Peace river in Florida, what work is being done to increase water storage?

Answer 20

• work has recently began on a new 24 billion litre water storage reservoir and the capacity of the treatment plant is being doubled
• this work is designed to meet the increasing demand for water over the coming years

Question 21

What is a reservoir?

Answer 21

a man-made lake which is artificial and created as a source of water supply by building a dam to store water where it is allowed to flood the valley

Question 22

What is the UK’s largest reservoir? (how much water does it hold, when was it built, how long did it take to fill and what towns are served by it?)

Answer 22

Kielder water in Northumberland

• holds 200 billion litres of water
• built in 1975 and finished in 1981, 6 years to build
• the reservoir took 2 years to completely fill once the construction was finished
• the main towns served are: Newcastle, Sunderland and Middlesborough

Question 23

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a dam being built? (in Northumberland Kielder water)

Answer 23

A:

• it can become a tourist attraction e.g. for fishing (Kielder water attracts 250,000 people a year which provides income)
• it provides jobs for construction
• tourists can come for leisure opportunities (e.g. Kielder water has leisure opportunities in the Leaplish waterside park)

D:
- farmland and homes can be lost forever in the creation

Question 24

What were the advantages and disadvantages of building a dam in Lesotho, the Katse dam?

Answer 24

A:

• provides water to areas so that there is enough for Johannesburg
• the water can be sold (aim to earn $35 million a year from water deficit areas)
• provides lots of water to people e.g.in construction and fishing which creates another industry
• helps people further their ambitions from farming to engineering etc
• provides good quality water (known as white gold)
• can control it throughout the year

D:

• taken away peoples land/homes/livelihoods
• affects daily life - flooded fields block valley and way to school (inconvenient as you can’t walk across but have to walk around)
• possible floods
• water level is rising meaning more places will be lost

Question 25

What is the global pattern of water surplus and deficit?

Answer 25

• areas of deficit are mainly tropical and sub-tropical e.g.Sahara, particularly in continental interior area such as the USA
• areas of surplus are mainly in equatorial locations e.g.Amazon Basin
• high latitude areas are mainly balanced
• neutral and surplus water is mostly found above the equator and vice versa
• southern Asia, southern America and Australia (excluding the Amazon rainforest) mostly suffer from a major water deficit
• the far eastern side of the globe, in places such as Japan, Indonesia and the Phillipeans have a water surplus
• north America, Europe etc have neutral water

Question 26

what is evaporation?

Answer 26

the loss of moisture from water surfaces and soil into the atmosphere

Question 27

What is transpiration?

Answer 27

the loss of moisture from vegetation into the atmosphere

Question 28

What is evapotranspiration?

Answer 28

the combination of evaporation and transpiration

Question 29

What is a water surplus?

Answer 29

a situation in which the usable water supply exceeds the demand

Question 30

What is a water deficit?

Answer 30

a situation in which the usable water supply does not satisfy the demand

Question 31

How does evaporation and transpiration affect the water supply?

Answer 31

these processes make water depend on the water received and the water it loses with evapotranspiration
in some places they receive more water than they lose but in some they lose more water than they gain

Question 32

What are the 4 main water supply problems in HICs?

Answer 32

1 quality
2 loss through broken pipes
3 spatial variability
4 seasonal variability

Question 33

In HICs, how is the quality of the water supply improved? (UK)

Answer 33

• UK’s water supply is monitored by the Drinking Water Inspectorate who regularly test quality which is generally high
• in 1992, 7% of the tests in England were below quality
• in 2007, the tests below quality had dropped to 0.1%
• they follow the EU’s ‘Water Framework Detectives’
• when farmers use nitrogen based fertilisers it can lead to high levels of nitrates in the local river and groundwater…in Lake District and Norfolk Broads the levels were reduced by allowing farmers to apply for grants by reducing nitrogen fertilisers
• in 2007, chemical quality of water was good or very good in 76% of cases up from 55% in 1990…pollution of river can still result from industrial leaks and inefficiencies in sewage treatment

Question 34

In HICs, why is so much water being lost through broken pipes in London and what is being done to solve the problem?

Answer 34

• water distribution system was mostly constructed in the 1830s and 40s - many of the original pipes have been in continuous use since then
• as demand increased, so has water pressure to move water quickly - many pipes are unable to cope with this pressure and have therefore burst
• these contribute to 20% of water leaks and loss in the London system
• 1990s) new main ring was built, 40 metres below surface, consisting of 80km of 2.5 metre-diameter pipeline
• £250 million project has reduced leakage losses and given a much more reliable system
• the ring main links treatment plants, supply points and storage reservoirs allowing 1.3 billion litres per day to be supplied (north and south extensions are under construction to give system greater flexibility and storage potential

Question 35

How does spatial variability affect water supply in the Uk, a HIC?

Answer 35

• most rainfall occurs in the north and west

- water must be transported to the south and east to meet the demand of the more densely populated areas

Question 36

How does seasonal variability affect water supply in Costa del Sol, Spain? (HIC) What is being done?

Answer 36

• there are seasonal water problems because of seasonal variation in rainfall
• rainfall in July and August is virtually nothing
• demand for water increases at the same time due to tourism e.g.swimming pools, golf courses, domestic use etc
• 6 major reservoirs have been built e.g. La Conception holds 65 million litres3
• there are also desalination plants to source more water
• there have been restrictions put in place

Question 37

What are the 3 main water supply problems faced by LICs?

Answer 37

1 lack of available clean water
2 water-borne diseases
3 water pollution

Question 38

How does the lack of available clean water in LICs affect them?

Answer 38

• most countries above the equator and Australia have access to clean water which links in with the fact that they are more developed than other countries
• estimated that 1 billion people in LICs lack access to safe water - the percentage of people with access to safe water reflects the health of people in different countries
• also many women and children in rural areas have to spend huge amounts of effort and time (as much as 6-8 hours per day) collecting and carrying water which affects their access to education etc
• countries with lowest %figures are: Eritrea (7), Cambodia (13), Central African Republic (19), Democratic Republic of Congo (27), Papua New Guinea (28) and Madagascar (29)

Question 39

Explain the Tanzania, Africa case study with access to clean water:

Answer 39

• central east = 2/3 lack access to safe water and are underdeveloped
• 10 years ago 4 bore holes were built to support village
• now invest in business, there are economic benefits and there is sanitation
• without water it would take a great time to collect, they would waste money when people were ill due to bad water (200 shillings which could buy 10 loaves of bread and 3kg of rice)
• now no cases of cholera since 1997, trachoma and diarrhea have disappeared
• now have more time to build businesses with lasting economic benefit and more opportunities
• more time to study, not get behind (attendance rises by 12% when there’s safe water)
• helps sanitation (constructing latrines)
• villages prosper over time with no disease and businesses

Question 40

How do water-borne diseases affect LICs?

Answer 40

• people can’t lead healthy, productive lives without safe water
• 2 million people die a year from these and 900 million are affected
• cholera is caused by bacteria from faeces getting into drinking water, in Zimbabwe 50,000 people were infected and 2008/9 over 3,000 people dies due to inadequate sewage systems
• typhoid is caused by the bacterium salmonella typhi which is transmitted between humans by eating food and drinking water contaminated with it, in Sierra Leone 15 people were dying per week in 2000

Question 41

How does water pollution affect water supply in LICs? What are some of the causes (overview)?

Answer 41

• surface water and ground water can both be affected by pollution, although groundwater pollution is much less obvious and visible
• mining of metallic minerals) affects fresh water through processing of ore where waste seeps into water e.g.sulfides can create sulfuric acid in rivers
• Zambia - major pollution occurred in the copper mining industry in 2006) environment council directed Konkola copper mines to cease operations after polluting the Kafue river which caused water shortages in Chingola
• resource exploitation e.g.deforestation) results in death of root systems, leaving sediments to run off into streams, seriously affecting aquatic life
• poor farming practices - soils are exposed to the elements leading to sediment pollution which in turn can affect people’s digestive systems) also use of fertilisers and pesticides result in water pollution e.g.Costa Rica, deforested areas 3-8x more contaminated
• non-point source pollution - when water pollution happens from a number of scattered sources) e.g.run off from fertilised fields add nitrates to rivers which affect many places = transboundary pollution
• point-source pollution) e.g.discharge pipe from a factory and oil spill

Question 42

How can water be saved in the home?

Answer 42

• bathroom) 60% of households water storage
• turn off tap whilst brushing teeth (6l saved per minute)
• use optimize shower heads (air mixed with water reduce water usage from 15l to 8l per minute)
• shower for shorter period (turn off whilst cleaning)
• cistern displacement device (1/3 clean water flushed down toilet) e.g.hippo bag (saves 2l per flush, 3500l saved per person annually), dual-flush toilets control options
• fix leaking tap (can waste 5500l per year)
• tap flow regulator controls amount of water
• wash dishes in bowl instead of under tap
• fill up water in jug, leave in fridge instead of running waste water
• wait for a full load of washing before using machine
• scrape plates instead of rinsing
• look for energy and water efficient devices

Question 43

How can water meters be used to manage water consumption in HICs?

Answer 43

• householders with meters pay for the volume of water they use in cubic metres as recorded by meter
• 70% of households without have to pay a standard charge irrespective of water they use
• metering system allows people to be careful about water that they use e.g. in 2008, prices were £1.60 per CM and a typical family of 4 may use 200 CM per year

Question 44

What can be done to reduce the consumption of water in toilets?

Answer 44

• dual flush toilets use only 6l for full flush and 4l for reduced compared to old single flush 13l per flush
• can also use hippo bag - placed in the cistern to reduce its capacity and therefore reduce the water wasted in each flush (roughly 2l saved per flush)

Question 45

How can the use of water in the steel industry be reduced?

Answer 45

• by using new manufacturing techniques and recycling water
• traditional blast furnace = 11,000 litres of water is required to produce 1 tonne of steel
• modern electric arc systems and the use of recycled steel reduce this to about 2,300 litres of water per tonne
• a lot of water is used for cooling in steel plants but this can be recycled so that consumption is reduced…
• …water can be condensed back into liquid state after it has been evaporated by produced heat

Question 46

How do efficient irrigation systems allow water consumption to be carefully managed?

Answer 46

• in agriculture, the use of water in irrigation systems is being carefully managed by the use of modern, more efficient systems
• drip feed and sprinkler systems use much less water than irrigation channels and ditches
• it is estimated that drip systems are 90% efficient, with only 10% of water being lost to evaporation
• sprinkler systems are about 70% efficient whilst channels and ditches may only be 50% efficient

Question 47

What is a borehole?

Answer 47

a hole dug in the ground to an aquifer water source; a water pump is then placed to extract the water

Question 48

What is appropriate technology?

Answer 48

technology which is appropriate if the community is able to use it relatively easily, without much cost and is easy to maintain

Question 49

What is a particularly effective method of appropriate technology used in Africa?

Answer 49

boreholes

• the Rural Water Supply Network aims to provide low cost boreholes that are appropriate for the need of local communities
• they cost between $5000-6000
• planned for Mozambique, to be installed at a rate of 400 per year
• partly funded by Dutch government

Question 50

Explain briefly how appropriate technology in Zambia has helped local people?

Answer 50

• life expectancy of 37
• only 28% of people have access to clean and safe water and 24% to sanitation
• water pumps were installed as appropriate technology
• changed lives: less disease and diarrhea = more school, better quality and length of living, allows communities and people to flourish

Question 51

Explain the Kolkata (India) water recycling scheme:

Answer 51

• sewage water being recycled for use in fish farming and agriculture
• sewage is piped into shallow lagoons which allow sun-light to reach the bottom, promoting the growth of algae and photsynthetic oxygen
• using plants such as water hyacinth and duck weed, allow dirt and some metals to be removed and purify the water by exposure to sunlight and aeration
• fish, especially carp, flourish in this productive ecosystem and fishermen’s co-operatives have been formed which have been formed and are proving to be successful commercial initiatives

Question 52

Explain the case study of conflict caused by water transfer in the Colorado river basin:
(SEE NOTES IN FOLDER)

Answer 52

• water supply is a controversial issue in this area (river source is 400m high in rocky mountains and flows south west for 2.3km to mouth at gulf of California, Mexico)
• many groups of people (those living in upper part of river basin, those living in lower part of river basin e.g.Arizona whose population’s increased by 40% in 1980s, farmers who want water for irrigation, the native Indian population who claim rights to water and people who want water for domestic use (also to generate power)
• laws have been passed to try and regulate water use e.g. The Colorado River Compact 1922 and 1963 US supreme court decision who apportioned water and promoted funding for projects
• so much water extraction that river is almost dry at its mouth making Mexico the biggest loser and water is very saline so 20% of farmland not cultivated, All American Canal stopped water leaking into Mexican aquifer
• water allocation: lower basin) Arizona-17%, California-26%, Nevada-2%(problem due to swift development e.g.Las Vegas) upper basin) Colorado-24%, Wyoming-6%, New Mexico-5%, Utah-10% Mexico)10%
• more conflict is caused by rising populations and increased development e.g. 2007 Arizona who supply Phoenix and Tucson were in government dispute about amount of water extracted upstream
• there are water projects underway through environmental-impact studies in accordance with US environmental protection laws

Question 53

Explain the case study of a water management scheme - Sydney Olympic Park:
(SEE NOTES IN FOLDER)

Answer 53

• built to reduce pressure on demand for drinking water supply and provide a broad range of commercial, residential, recreational and leisure uses
• designed to make use of the facilities and infrastructure left behind after the Olympics
• it consisted of a water reclamation plant which removes water from sewage at a rate of up to 3 million litres per day, a brick-pit which is a reservoir able to hold up to 300 million litres of water, a water treatment plant to filter and disinfect water at a rate of up to 7.5 million litres per day and a separate, dedicated supply system to pipe water from the treatment out
• it saves about 850 million litres of water per year by reducing consumption by 50% at Sydney Olympic park and Newington, treats and reduces almost 100% of sewage, provides cheaper water, recycled water can be used for toilet flushing, car washing, gardening, cooling towers etc.
• the negatives are that it is only a viable option for building new settlements, it’s very expensive, public view can think badly of recycled water