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Physical Geography - Concepts > Water & Carbon > Flashcards

Water & Carbon Flashcards

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1
Q

Define a drainage basin

A

Area of land drained by a river and its tributaries, it is an open system with external inputs and outputs

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2
Q

Give examples of inputs and outputs for a drainage basin

A

Inputs - Rain, hail, snow

Outputs - Evaporation, Transpiration, Discharge

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3
Q

What are the physical factors impacting a drainage basin?

A

Climate - Influences type and amount of precipitation, and the amount of evaporation
Soils - Determine the amount of infiltration
Vegetation - Presence/absence of vegetation has a large impact on the amount of interception, infiltration and transpiration rates

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4
Q

What are the human factors impacting a drainage basin?

A

River management - Reservoirs/dams restrict flows, abstraction of water reduces flow
Deforestation - Greatly increases surface runoff
Land use - Urbanisation means more impermeable surfaces (greater runoff), agriculture (soil compacted by livestock means more runoff)

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5
Q

Name 2 case studies for drainage basins

A

Malham Cove - Found in limestone country, permeable rock leads water underground, it then travels along impermeable rock to form streams (e.g. at the foot of Malham cove)
Heavy rains during 2014 storms changed the basin, limestone became impermeable, forming a waterfall
Amazon Basin - world’s largest area of tropical basin, has been impacted by human activity. Deforestation has lowered precipitation rates, increased surface runoff and soil erosion etc.

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6
Q

What is a river regime?

A

The annual variation in discharge or flow of a river at a particular point

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7
Q

What are the 6 factors affecting a river regime?

A

The size of the river & where discharge measurements are taken
Human activities
The geology (permeability) and soil type
The amount, pattern and intensity of precipitation
The temperatures
Amount of vegetation/type of vegetation

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8
Q

Give 3 river regime case studies

A

The Amazon River - Approximately 6300km long, peak discharge in April/May (snowmelt from the Andes), lowest discharge in September. Human activity (deforestation) has increased runoff, soil erosion etc.
The Yukon River - Approximately 3500km long, tundra climate, peak discharge in May/June, lowest discharge December to May
The River Nile - Hot climate, 6800km long, has been heavily affected by human activity, construction of Aswan Damn in 1970 > flow below the dam was reduced by 65%

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9
Q

What are the three types of drought?

A

Meteorological - Long term precipitation is much lower, region-specific as atmospheric conditions that cause lower precipitation vary betwen climates
Agricultural - Occurs when there is insufficient soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular place, during critical periods of crop growth
Hydrological - Occurs when there are deficiencies in surface and sub-surface water supplies, as measured in rivers, lakes, dams and groundwater

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10
Q

What is an El Nino event?

A

Temperature anomaly occurring every 3-7 years. Trade winds are disrupted, air circulation reversed, ocean currents are effected, e.g. warm water near places like Australia is replaced by cooler water.
El Nino events trigger very dry conditions throughout the world.

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11
Q

What is a La Nina event?

A

May follow an El Nino event - Involve the build up of cool sub-surface water in the tropical part of the Pacific. Can lead to severe droughts, particularly in South America

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12
Q

What are the physical causes of Desertification?

A

Lower rainfall
Increased drought
Global warming, higher temperatures, increased evaporation

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13
Q

How do humans contribute to desertification?

A

Increased numbers of livestock
Population growth
Over-abstraction, over-cultivation, deforestation

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14
Q

Give an example of desertification

A

The Sahel - High population growth, increasing birth rates & falling death rates - Farmers expand to adapt to higher demand, more grass ploughed, vegetation cannot re-establish itself, soil exposed to erosion, loses moisture through evaporation

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15
Q

Give an example of drought

A

Australia - Recurring annual feature, 30% of Australia affected by serious or severe rainfall deficiency. Linked to El Nino events, droughts have become more frequent and severe (e.g. 2006 ‘Big Dry’) - Australia has not experienced desertification due to careful management of water resources, e.g. large scale recycling of grey water

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16
Q

What are the physical causes of flooding?

A

Intense storms which lead to flash flooding
Prolonged, heavy rain, such as the passage of deep depressions across the UK
Rapid snowmelt during a particularly warm spring

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17
Q

How is the likelihood of flooding increased by a place’s physical circumstances?

A

Low-lying areas with impermeable surfaces, areas that experience volcanic activity (which generates meltwater beneath ice sheets that is suddenly released) are all more susceptible to flooding

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18
Q

How do human activities contribute to flood risk?

A

Deforestation - Increases runoff etc.
Channelisation - Lowers flood risk at one point of a river, increases risk elsewhere
Dams - Blocks flow of sediment down the river, soil erosion below the dam increases
River embankments - Built to stop flooding, but if a flood exceeds their capacity the can fail and make scale of flood worse
Urbanisation - Impermeable surfaces

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19
Q

What are the socioeconomic impacts of flooding?

A

Deaths/injuries
Property damage, loss of homes, businesses, farmland
Interruption of water/energy supplies

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20
Q

What are the environmental impacts (positive and negative) of flooding?

A

Positive - Recharged groundwater sources, soil replenishment
Negative - Mostly caused by human activities prior to flooding, e.g. eutrophication of water bodies, transfer of pollutants

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21
Q

Describe 2 case studies of places that have experienced flooding

A

1 - The UK, winter floods of 2015-16, prolonged heavy rainfall (at different times of the year), in 2016 large areas of UK received more than twice the average amount of rainfall.
Flood defences in the UK were not made to deal with such severe flooding, billions in damage
2 - Bangladesh, flood-prone country due to many major rivers running through the country (Ganges, Padma etc.), these rivers are swollen twice a year by meltwater from mountains like the Himalayas.

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22
Q

What are the impacts of climate change on the inputs and outputs of the hydrological cycle?

A

Precipitation - Warmer atmosphere has a greater water-holding capacity, wide increases in the intensity of rainfall are expected, places with precipitation increases will include the tropics and areas with high latitudes
Soil Moisture - Uncertainty over this, climate is only one factor of many affecting soil moisture, areas where precipitation is increasing will likely see increasing soil moisture
Evaporation - Evaporation over large areas (e.g. North America|) seems to be increasing

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23
Q

What are the impacts of climate change on the flows and stores of the hydrological cycle?

A

Surface runoff and stream flows - More low flows (droughts) and high flows (floods), increased runoff, reduced infiltration
Oceans - Warming oceans will have higher evaporation & possibly more cyclones, rising sea levels
Glaciers - Evidence of glacier retreat and ice sheet thinning since 1970s

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24
Q

Name 4 of the reason for increased water insecurity

A

Decreasing rainfall in many areas as a result of global warming
Depleted aquifers lead to problems with groundwater
More frequent cyclones, monsoons and storms threaten water supplies intermittently
Increased frequency and intensity of droughts as a result of global warming

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25
Q

What has population growth and economic development, in many countries, led to?

A

Water insecurity

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26
Q

What are the factors that reduce water availability?

A

Climate (precipitation, evaporation)
Saltwater enroachment at coast/ discharge of water into the sea
Water contamination by agricultural, industrial and domestic pollution
Over abstraction from rivers, aquifers etc.

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27
Q

What are the 3 major factors in growing water demand?

A

Population growth - More people = more thirst
Economic development - Increases demand for water in all industries
Rising living standards - Increases per capita consumption

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28
Q

What is water scarcity?

A

Access to water is lower than 1000 m3 per person

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29
Q

Distinguish between physical and economic water scarcity

A

Physical - When more than 75% of a country’s blue water is being used (e.g. Middle East, North Africa)
Economic - When use of blue water sources is limited by lack of technology, governance etc. (mostly seen in Africa)

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30
Q

What are the 2 main causes of water scarcity?

A

Lack of precipitation

Lack of ability to harness blue water available

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31
Q

Give examples of water scarcity hotspots

A

US - Ogalla aquifer provides 1 third of irrigation water but is depleting rapidly
Sub-Saharan Africa - Economic scarcity, large amounts of poverty, lack of infrastuctural development
China - North has severe scarcity, has led to the South-North water transfer scheme

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32
Q

Describe Karachi’s water crisis

A

Arid climate, little rainfall annually
Govt. can only supply 50% of the water that Karachi needs
Hub Dam went dry in 2016, the city now relies on the Indus River (130km away)
No equal distribution system, ‘water mafias’ steal water from tankers and sell it on the black market

33
Q

Describe the effects of agriculture, industry and domestic use have on water supply

A

Agriculture - Main consumer of water, 20% of world’s land under irrigation, takes most water from aquifers > leading to massive groundwater depletion
Industry - 20% of of all freshwater withdrawals are for industrial production (e.g. steel and chemical industries), mostly used for hydroelectric power (and so returns to cycle through evaporation)
Domestic use - Economic development means more water use (rising living standards) > could lead to spread of disease if water is not properly sanitised

34
Q

Why do water conflicts arise?

A

The demand for water overtakes the available supply

35
Q

How can water conflicts become international?

A

When the water source is trans-boundary

36
Q

Give a water conflict case study

A

The River Nile - 11 countries compete for its water, 300 million people live within the Nile basin (set to double by 2030), water from the Nile needed for domestic use and agriculture, building of dams causes conflict > e.g. dams built in Sudan/Ethiopia deprived Egypt of water

37
Q

What are the two approaches to managing water supply?

A

Hard engineering schemes

Sustainable water management

38
Q

What are the three main hard engineering schemes?

A

Water transfer schemes - The diversion of water from one basin to another, by diverting a river/building a canal
Dams - 60% of world’s major rivers are impeded by large dams
Desalination - Process of making saltwater sustainable for human use

39
Q

Give case studies for the hard engineering water management schemes

A

Water transfer schemes - China, South-North transfer project, plans to move water from Yangtze river to industrial north (more arid) > can cause water scarcity for source area, environmental degradation
Dams - Large dams on rivers such as the Nile, Yangtze and Colorado, very expensive, can disrupt water supply downstream
Desalination - Middle East countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia and the UAE) are beginning to look to this process as the price of freshwater rises

40
Q

What are the major processes used in sustainable water management?

A

Smart irrigation - new technology minimises waster by sprinklers and surface flow systems
Recycling of grey water - re-using water from domestic use for agriculture
Filtration technology - There is little dirty water that cannot be purified and recycled
Restoration - Restoring damaged lakes, rivers etc. so they can play a role in the hydrological cycle again

41
Q

What is an example of a country using sustainable water management?

A

Singapore - Few natural resources, thriving economy, high living standards & high per capita consumption > water management is now a top priority.
Govt. encourages citizens to use water resourcefully, large re-use of grey water, greater desalination of seawater

42
Q

What are carbon stores and fluxes?

A

Stores - Acts as both sources (adding carbon) and sinks (removing carbon) within the carbon cycle
Fluxes - Movements of carbon from one store to the other

43
Q

What 3 are the 3 forms Carbon is found in?

A

Inorganic - Rocks
Organic - Plants
Gaseous - Found as CO2, Methane and Carbon Monoxide

44
Q

Define the terms Carbon sequestration and Carbon pumps

A

Sequestration - Process by which CO2 is removed from the atmosphere and held in solid/liquid form
Pumps - The processes operating in the oceans that circulate and store carbon

45
Q

What is the world’s largest carbon store?

A

The oceans

46
Q

What are three types of carbon pumps?

A

Biological - CO2 moved from ocean surface to marine plants (phytoplankton) via photosynthesis. CO2 becomes food for microscopic animals, most CO2 is recycled near surface, 30% sinks into deeper water
Carbonate - Form sediments from from dead organisms that sink to ocean floor (e.g. shells of crustaceans that are rich in calcium carbonate)
Physical - Move carbon compounds to different parts of the ocean through downwellings (cold, dense water sinks), these currents bring dissolved CO2 to the deep ocean where it can stay for hundreds of years

47
Q

What is the Thermohaline Circulation and what is its role in the Carbon Cycle?

A

Physical pump, global system of surface and deep ocean currents. Driven by temperature and salinity differences. Warmer currents nearer to the surface, colder currents deeper

48
Q

What is the Gulf Stream and how is it significant as part of the thermohaline circulation?

A

Warm current of water, travels from the Gulf of Mexico to Europe.
Ice cap melting has slowed down the Gulf Stream in recent years (colder, denser water added to the current) and it is predicted that the Gulf Stream will completely fail in the future > this would alter European climates, global warming would be slowed down

49
Q

What are the biggest soils of terrestrial carbon?

A

Soils

50
Q

What is the amount of carbon stored in soils dependant on?

A

Climate - Dictates rates of plant growth/decomposition
Vegetation cover
Soil type - e.g. clay rich soils protect carbon from decomposition
Land use - soil disturbance = carbon loss

51
Q

What is increasingly unbalancing the Carbon cycle?

A

Human interference

52
Q

What is the number 1 threat to the carbon cycle?

A

Fossil fuel combustion

53
Q

What is energy security?

A

A state in which there is an uninterrupted availability of energy at a national level (and an affordable price)

54
Q

Who are the key players in energy security?

A

Consumers
National Government
TNCs
OPEC (IGO)

55
Q

What is OPEC and give an example of its role in regulating energy security

A

OPEC - Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia)
Aims to create stable income for oil producing countries, controls over 40% of world’s oil supply
Maintains stability by coordinating its 14 member states, e.g. 2004, decreased Iraq’s output as it was at war and increased output of other members

56
Q

What is a country’s energy mix?

A

The combination of different energy sources available to meet a country’s energy demand

57
Q

Give an example of a national government regulating its energy security

A

Russia, Gazprom - State-controlled since 2000, one of the largest producers of natural gas in the world, Europe is its biggest customer (e.g. Germany imported 40 billion m3 in 2013)
Conflicts with other countries (e.g. 2014 Ukraine) makes Russia’s exports vulnerable, following conflict in 2014 EU and US imposed sanctions causing a decline in profits

58
Q

What are some of the alternative energy sources that make up a country’s energy mix?

A 
Oil
Coal
Gas
Nuclear
Biofuels 
Hydroelectric
59
Q

Distinguish between primary and secondary energy

A

Primary - Any form of energy found in nature > hasn’t been subject to conversion/transformation
Secondary - Energy derived from the conversion or transformation of primary energies

60
Q

Give an example of a national government regulating its energy mix

A

Denmark - Diverse energy mix, wind turbine produce about 40% of country’s electricity, has reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 30% since 1990, Danish govt. has taken a holistic approach to regulating its energy mix

61
Q

What are the 8 main factors affecting per capita energy consumption?

A 
Economic development 
Physical availability
Technology
Cost
Public perceptions
Climate
Environmental priorities
62
Q

What are energy pathways?

A

Routes by which fossil fuels are transported between countries

63
Q

How can energy pathways be disrupted?

A

Piracy attacks by criminals - e.g. Strait of Malacca between Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore has become world’s second largest chokepoint
Terrorism - e.g. Nigeria pipelines bombed by militants in 2013 (300,000 barrels of oil lost per day)
Extreme weather events - e.g. UK storms, gas reserves fell to 6 hours worth
War - e.g. Syria civil war since 2011
Political conflict - e.g. Russia and Europe

64
Q

What are the four main unconventional fossil fuels being used as energy sources?

A

Deep water oil - Companies have to look into deeper ocean waters as accessible reserves run out > higher risks (e.g. 2011 Deepwater Horizon)
Tar Sands - Type of petroleum called bitumen taken from naturally occurring mixtures of sand, clay and water
Shale Gas - Methane trapped in fractures of sandstones and shales
Oil Shale - Organic compounds deposited in sedimentary rocks that need heat & time to become conventional oil

65
Q

What are the downsides of exploiting these unconventional fossil fuels?

A

All fossil fuels and so will continue to threaten the carbon cycle
Extraction is costly
All threaten environmental damage

66
Q

What are the 4 major renewable energy sources?

A

Nuclear
Biofuels
Wind
Solar

67
Q

What are the costs and benefits of Nuclear power?

A

Costs - Contaminates water sources with radiation, controversial due to risk posed by a failure (e.g. Chernobyl), costly, e.g. Hinkley point £18 billion
Benefits - No greenhouse gas emissions, creates jobs, e.g. Hinkley points 25,000 jobs

68
Q

What are the costs and benefits of Solar energy?

A

Costs - large land usage, individual expense is high, dependent on season/climate
Benefits - No CO2 emissions, can provide energy to a large area, e.g. 75% of Bournemouth

69
Q

What are the costs and benefits of wind energy?

A

Costs - Can anger locals who call them unsightly, very noisy, expensive to install and maintain
Benefits - Non-polluting, create jobs (e.g. 2000 jobs crested for Hornsea project), can provide power for many homes, e.g. Hornsea, 1 million homes powered

70
Q

Who is the world’s leading producer of biofuels?

A

Brazil - Since 1970s they have diversified their energy mix and improved their energy security

71
Q

What are the costs and benefits of biofuels?

A

Costs - Requires use of pesticides and fertilisers to grow crops, these use fossil fuels, leads to clearing of forest areas to relocate industries displaced by growth of biofuel crops (e.g. Large areas of Amazon rainforest now being cleared for cattle ranching)
Benefits - Renewable energy source, do not need specialist machinery to grow, bio-degradable

72
Q

What are the 5 main types of radical energy solutions?

A 
Hydrogen fuel cells
Electric vehicles 
Nuclear Fusion
Nanotechnology 
Carbon capture and storage
73
Q

What are the positives and negatives of hydrogen fuel cells?

A

Hydrogen fuel cells - Quickly recharged, can travel further (no range anxiety), main emission is water > Expensive to buy ($60,000 for a base model) and expensive to have hydrogen charging stations, hydrogen is flammable

74
Q

What are the positives and negatives of Carbon capture and storage?

A

Carbon Capture and Storage - CCS could cut global CO2 emissions by 19% (crucial in limiting temp. rise) > very expensive, first plant opened in Canada in 2014 at a cost of $1.3 billion, uncertainty over whether carbon would remain stored underground

75
Q

What are the positives and negatives of Nuclear fusion?

A

No greenhouse gas emissions or radioactivity

Research still needed to commercialise it (however 35 countries signed an agreement to work together on developing it)

76
Q

What is the difference between Adaptation and Mitigation/

A

Adaptation - Changing ways of living in order to cope with the outcomes of global warming
Mitigation - Reducing or preventing GHG emissions by devising new technologies and adopting low carbon energies

77
Q

Give 4 examples of adaptation strategies

A

Resilient agricultural systems
Land-Use planning
Flood-Risk management
Solar radiation management

78
Q

What are the benefits and costs of resilient agricultural systems?

A

Higher-tech, drought-tolerant species help resistance to climate change and spread of disease, generate healthier soils, may help CO2 sequestering > More expensive tech, not feasible for poorer subsistence farmers, may not be fully understood before mass production as places look for a ‘quick fix’ to food insecurity

Physical Geography - Concepts (3 decks)

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