Walking

Question 1

The development of locomotion is a key motor landmark and is very important to parents, the onset of walking is very visible and a rapid progress soon occurs. True or false?

Answer 1

True

Question 2

Define locomotion?

Answer 2

Locomotion can be defined as “movements skills such as walking or running that enable us to move from one place to another”.

Question 3

What are locomotion skills important for a child?

Answer 3

Thy enable the child to make whole body movements that an enable them to explore the environment and complete a wide range of daily tasks.

Question 4

What are the 3 stages of walking?

Answer 4

1) Crawling
2) Cruising
3) Walking

Question 5

Crawling - what is the first type of locomotive movement in this stage and when does it occur?

Answer 5

The first movement is ROLLING and occurs between 4-10 months.

Question 6

Crawling - at 6 months what happens?

Answer 6

A 6 months the child begins to creep and the crawl in the prone position,this crawling is very much a pre-walking progression that enables a child to interact with the environment.

Question 7

Crawling - what are the two crawling techniques observed in this stage?

Answer 7

1) Belly Crawling

2) Crawling on their hands and knees

Question 8

Outline the findings from the study conduced by Adolph (2000) in relation to the visual cliff?

Answer 8

Adolph (2000) found that when a child first begins to crawl they show no signs of fear when beckoned across the visual cliff however the infants who had been crawling for a while wouldn’t attempt to cross the visual cliff and showed signs of fear.

Question 9

What is the visual cliff who developed it?

Answer 9

The visual cliff was made up of 2 sides an opaque side and a transparent side, it was developed by Eleanor Gibson to investigate perception amongst children. The transparent Plexiglas covered the 4 feet drop and created the illusion of the visual cliff.

Question 10

Outline the study conducted by Gibson and Walk (1960) on the visual cliff?

Answer 10

They placed 36 infants between the ages of 6 and 12 months on the visual cliff and they were beckoned across the visual cliff towards the transparent plexiglas by their parent holding a stimulus such as a Toy to motivate the child to crawl. The RESULTS demonstrated that:

• 27 infants crawled across with no problems
• A few infants were hesitant
• Some infants refused to crawl.

The study showed that babies rely on vision when crawling and they have an understanding of depth perception.

Question 11

Outline the study conducted by Lee and Aronson (1974) on the swinging room?

Answer 11

Thus study states that children were very sensitive to “Perceptual Information” because when the walls moved it disrupted the optical flow information.

Beginner walkers: would fall over.
Experienced walkers: would just stagger.

Question 12

What is the name of the stage following crawling?

Answer 12

Cruising

Question 13

When does cruising occur?

Answer 13

Cruising occurs when the child has developed enough “leg strength” and “postural control” and involves them using the grasping reflex to hold onto chairs and furniture to pull themselves up and to provide them with additional support

Question 14

Postural control is an influential factor that determines and infants development through the different stages of walking. True of false?

Answer 14

True

Question 15

Once a child can “hold their head up” they are able to explore the environment and once they have enough “leg strength” they can hold themselves in an upright position and they can crawl and walk. True or false?

Answer 15

True

Question 16

The control of our head is important because what two sensory systems are in our head that influence our ability to balance?

Answer 16

1) visual system

2) vestibular system

Question 17

At what age is a child’s postural control adult like?

Answer 17

By the ages of 7-10 years

Question 18

Cruising - what does Haehl et al (2000) state?

Answer 18

Haehl et al (2000) states that as a child’s strength and balance improves, infants tend to place more weight on their legs than on their arms.

Question 19

Cruising - when a child becomes more experienced at cruising what do they tend to do?

Answer 19

The child uses just one hand

Question 20

Cruising enables a child to freeze and unfreeze the degrees of freedom (Bernstein, 1967). For example when first begging to walk a child tends to look very rigid this is because they are controlling the degrees of freedom. True or false?

Answer 20

True

Question 21

Bernstein (1967) states that the activity of reducing the degrees of freedom is a difficult task, but once mastered enables a child to perform fluent movement. True of False?

Answer 21

True

Question 22

Walking - at what age will an infant begin to walk independently?

Answer 22

12 months however this time frame can vary according to the individual

Question 23

According to the study conducted my Malina (1980) what is the median age for the onset of walking?

Answer 23

It is between 11.4 and 14.5 months

Question 24

Early walking can be characterised by what?

Answer 24

• A wide stance with the feet turned out to provide more balance
• Steps also tend to be flat footed.

Question 25

During early walking the arms are in a “High Guard” position and they reduce the degrees of freedom and also act as a safety mechanism, provide an example for the safety mechanism of the “High Guard” position.

Answer 25

Because the hands are in the high guard position the child is able to catch themselves is they fall and thus reduce the risk of injury.

Question 26

What 3 things change to the arms as walking becomes more refined?

Answer 26

1) the arms are gradually lowered
2) the arms flex when walking
3) followed by reciprocal arm action

Question 27

What 2 things happen in terms of the legs after a child has been walking independently for 4-6 months?

Answer 27

1) the leg movements become more continuous.

2) the wide stance is reduced.

Question 28

Who were the two main players in the research of walking?

Answer 28

Shirley (1931)

McGraw (1941)

Question 29

Outline the study by Shirley (1931)?

Answer 29

Shirley (1931) followed 25 babies from birth to 2 years of age and from observations identified that there were 4 stages of walking development.

Question 30

Outline the study by McGraw (1940)?

Answer 30

McGraw (1940) examined the progression of individuals walking and identified 7 stages if erect locomotion, from reflex stepping to and an adults pattern of walking.

Question 31

Assainte et al (2000) found that 4-6 years of age is the key time for walking development due to what 3 factors?

Answer 31

1) Sufficient leg activation
2) Bilateral coordination becoming stable
3) Children been able to coordinate the various movements of the arms and legs

Question 32

What factors can influence and determine learning to move?

Answer 32

1) maturation of the CNS
2) sensitivity of certain information stores
3) growth of body dimensions
4) the ability to couple information and movements

Question 33

Studies reveal that walking can still be refined up to the ages of 7-8 but these changes are discrete and often difficult to assess via direct observation. True or false?

Answer 33

True

Question 34

As a child becomes more experienced as a result of interaction with the environment children are able to walk on various types of surfaces and objects e.g snow, climb chairs and walk downhill. True or false?

Answer 34

True

Question 35

What is the final stage following walking?

Answer 35

Running which involves dynamical movements and a flight phase.