W3: Working Memory Flashcards
How we learn new information and store it in our memories. It covers two of the most important models of memory: the modal model and the working memory model. Key topics: * Working memory * Serial Position Effect * Measuring working memory's capacity * Components of working memory * Entering long-term memory * Organising and remembering
The operations through which we gain new knowledge, retain that knowledge, and later use that knowledge are often divided into three processes.
Retrieval
Storage
Acquisition
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of knowledge retrieved from long-term memory
In list-learning experiments, participants’ performance in the pre-recency portion of the curve will be improved by
Presenting the list of words more slowly.
Early estimates of working-memory capacity relied on the digit-span task. The data indicate working-memory capacity to be ________ items.
Around 7: 5 +/- 2
Operation-span tasks measure the
efficiency with which working memory operates when it is working
The helper within the working-memory system that stores visual materials is called the
visuospatial buffer
For most recall tests, the transfer of items into long-term storage is best facilitated by
Elaborative rehearsal
How does the intention to learn influence how well we recall information?
The intention to memorise on its own adds nothing to our ability to learn
Deep processing
may lead to improved memory performance because it facilitates retrieval; this happens through the formation of many connections between the current item and previous knowledge
Although mnemonics can be helpful for remembering a small number of specific items (like a grocery list), it does have some drawbacks. One such problem is that
using a mnemonic involves a trade-off with less attention spent looking for memory connections that can help you understand the material
When you are trying to access information in long-term memory, you use a
retrieval path
Because of the effects of context-dependent learning, students might find it most beneficial to
prepare for their examinations under conditions similar to the test conditions
Participants in an experiment read target words in sentences. Participants in Group 1 received the following sentence: “the man watched the television”. Participants in Group 2 received the following sentence: “the man lifted the television”. When they are given hints to help them recall the target words, the results should show that
Group 1 should perform better when given the hint “something entertaining” than Group 2
Theories of spreading activation assume that the activation of one node will lead to the activation of
all connected nodes
In Meyer and Schvaneveldt’s (1971) experiment, participants were fastest to respond “yes” when they were presented with which of the following pairs?
Nurse-Doctor
A police officer asks, “Can you remember what happened last Tuesday at noon while you were sitting in the back room of Jane’s Restaurant?” This is an example of a question relying on
Recall
When participants make a “remember” judgement, they are indicating that they
have a source memory
Which tasks are appropriate to test implicit memory?
word-stem completion (given the first few letters of a word)
repetition priming (repetition of stimulus)
lexical decision (groups of letters are provided that are either a word or not a valid word)
Four fundamental differences between WM and LTM
- Size - WM: limited, 7 items; LTM: massive/unlimited
- Ease (of entry) - WM easy; LTM, not as easy
- Ease (of retrieval) - WM easy, LTM not easy
- Fragilty: WM fragile, LTM strong
Sensory Memory
The shortest term element of memory; like retaining an impression. Smell, Touch, Sight, Sound, Taste.
Holds info very briefly; ability to retain impressions of sensory info after the originl stimuli has ended
The primacy effect
Showing good recall for the first few words on a word recall tes list. Evidence of LTM.
The recency effect
Showing good recall for the last few words on a word recall test list. Evidence of WM.
What happens if you add an unfilled delay in a word recall test?
We see essentially the same pattern as a regular serial position effect/ u-curve. The primacy and recency effect still occur.
What happens if you add a filled delay at the end of a word recall test?
If the delay involves another task, it does not affect the primacy effect, but dramatically impacts the recency effect. This is because the task interferes with the WM.
What happens if you change the speed of the words presented in a word recall test?
When presentation is slowed, we end up remembering more words from the start and middle of the word list, because we have more time to attend to the words & transfer those words from WM to LTM. The recency effect is not impacted.
Chunking
Grouping bits of info to make memorisation easier. FBICIALOLBRB = FBI-CIA-LOL-BRB
Components of WM
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer.
Central executive
The boss, doesn’t hold/store info. Manipulates and manages data.
Components of WM
Central executive, visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, episodic buffer.
Central executive
The boss, doesn’t hold/store info. Manipulates and manages data.
Phonological similarity effect
“sound alike errors”
Conrad (1964) ofund that people didn’t make look-alike errors - people confused letters like “F” and “S” rather than “F” and “E”. The confusion was of letters/words that SOUND similar.
Central executive
A component of WM.
The boss, doesn’t hold/store info. Manipulates and manages data.
Visuospatial sketchpad
A component of WM; a slave/sub-system.
Handles visual and spatial information (eg. faces and maps). Involved in the process of visual imagery.
We don’t know much about it other than this; we don’t know ow people rehearse that info.
Phonological loop
A component of WM; a slave/sub-system.
Auditory info.
Episodic buffer
A component of WM; a slave/sub-system.
Combines visuo-spatial info with auditory info. Temporary storage where components of WM can interact, come together, and be combined.
Importance of WM
Virtually all mental activities require working memory., eg. reading or goal-directed behaviour
Clinical disorders linked with WM
WM Is linked with clinical disorders such as depression, ADHD, and learning difficulties.
Depression: “mood congruent thought”. Negative feelings can tie up the phonological loop.
Transferring info from WM to LTM
Repeated exposure doesn’t work; we need more active encoding, such as via rehearsal.
Two types of rehearsal
Maintenance and elaborative
Maintenance rehearsal
Rote repetition
Transferring info from WM to LTM
Repeated exposure doesn’t work; we need more active encoding, such as via rehearsal.
Level of processing is important - deeper processing leads to better recall.
Understanding info is important - remembering info in a useful and meaningful way.
Impact of intention on learning
Intention itself is not actually an important factor. Rather, the depth of learning and how you process information is important.
Hyde & Jenkin’s experiment showed this, where incidental learning group performed the same as the intentional learning group.
Levels of processing effect
Craik and Tulving found the levels of processing effect, where the deeper the processing, the more attention to the meaning of the word, the better the peoples recall.
More deeply processed info leads to better memory because it enhances the connections between memories, which helps us to retrieve it later on.
Elaborate encoding
Promotes more memory connections and thus the retrieval of info from LTM.
Example (word to recall, “watch”):
Simple: the boy dropped his _____.
Elaborate: the old man hobbled across the room, and picked up the valuable _____.
Mneumonics
Acronym, mental imagery,
Acronym (mneumonics)
A mneumonic strategy.
Never Eat Soggy Weatbix - North East South West
Mneumonics
Acronym, mental imagery, peg-words,
Acronym (mnemonics)
A mnemonic strategy.
Never Eat Soggy Weatbix - North East South West
Peg Word Method (mnemonics)
Learn the pegs first (one to ten connected with specific words), then attach words you want to memorize to the peg-words. Do so by creating bizarre imagery.
Why/how are mnemonics helpful?
Mnemonics impose organisation on the to-be remembered words or information.
What is digit span?
The number of digits a person can remember, typically around 7 digits.
What is 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks?
proposal that working memory holds 7 plus-or-minus 2 chunks.
What is the articulatory rehearsal loop?
It consists of two parts: a short-term phonological store with auditory memory traces that are subject to rapid decay and an articulatory rehearsal component (sometimes called the articulatory loop) that can revive the memory traces.