W3: The Future of Psychology Flashcards
L11, L12, PA 6, Marecek Article, Ch 8, Ch 10, Ch 11, Ch 12
What role does methodology play in psychology?
very important one!
important principles
- striving for clarity
- focus on testing
- attention to statistics, confounds, induction
- focus on empirical data & analyses
What is methodology vs methodolatry?
methodolatry is when you start worshipping method, which can become very superficial. its no longer true science because science is more than method, its an attitude (integrity, honesty
= bias towards increasing methodological rigour instead of the predictive power of theories
What are Mertons 4 core values in science?
- Communalism: scientific products belong to no one (theoretically, but in practice were not there yet)
- Universalism: truth claims are judged the same, no matter who makes them (theoretically, but in practice there are power structures in place, and underrepresentation of minorities)
- Disinterestedness: scientists have no interest in the outcome of research
- Organized skepticism: ideas are cracked down on and rigorously tested, regardless of who proposes them
What is meant by regulative ideals?
mertons norms & the scientific attitude are not actualized all the time, but this doenst make them useless
-> they are regulative ideals: things we strive for !
What is psychology’s 20th century paradigm? aka the standard of psych research in the 20th century
- create a theory (usually a verbal story)
- Come up with an experiment
(usually small n) - Test hypothesis (usually with a
significance test) - Publish results (usually without
full disclosure and without data)
What events contributed to the change in psych methodology?
- Vul’s Voodoo correlations (found impossible correlation of .88)
- Bargh’s fantastic effects (found strange results like ppl who are lonely take hotter showers)
- Bem showed evidence of clairvoyance but didnt seem to have done anything wrong
What are questionable research practices (QRPs)?
range of activities that intentionally or unintentionally distort data in favour of a researcher’s own hypotheses
What are some common Questionable Research Practices (QRPs)?
- p-hacking: manipulating data in order to obtain a desired (significant) p value (through deleting outliers, running extra participants to increase chances of significance, trying out several dependent variables, post hoc adding variables to the design etc.)
- publication bias: only publishing positive resutls (shown by funnel plots)
- HARKing: Hypothesizing After the Results are Known
- Dropping experimental conditions that “don’t work”
why do some authors believe we have overcome the replication crisis?
- we have identified the problems
- we can improve transparency in data & its analysis
- we can require preregistration
- we now have better bayesian stats
- we know value of replications
what 2 big things were achieved in psych methodology following the replication crisis?
- creation of repositiories
- publication of the TOP guidelines
What are 3 reasons why open science is necessary?
- cus errors in data analysis are likely,and conclusions made depend on these analyses
- makes it easy to run secondary data analysis
- makes big data research possible
what is meant by publish or perish?
refers to the practice in academia that a person will not be appointed or promoted unless they have a strong portfolio of scientific publications
define peer review
the evaluation of scientific work by research colleagues (peers) to decide whether the work is good enough to be published (or financed in case of grant applications)
what is the journal impact factor?
number that estimates the impact a journal has on a research area; based on the average number of citations to articles in the journal in subsequent years
what is a Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA)?
declaration that asks science funders and evaluators to look at the quality of the research itself rather than at the prestige of the outlets in which it was published
what is an open access journal?
journal that can be consulted without paying a subscription or fees for reading articles (usually via internet)
what is an article processing charge (APC)?
price asked by open access scientific journals to process a manuscript and publish it in the journal
define mega-journal
huge open access journal focused on methodological rigour rather than theoretical contribution; & articles on many topics can be included.
how has psych science publication changed in the past 100 years?
- many more published
- quality of journal increased
how is the quality of journal published evaluated? what was the consequence of this?
estimated on basis of average nr. of citations in a specified period aka JOURNAL IMPACT FACTOR
-> led to Declaration on Research Assessment since reliance on JIF had growing negative side effects
why did open access journals start appearing?
cus commercial publishers took over scientific journals from learned societies and research groups and asked increasingly higher subscription fees, even though the production costs went down
what is the business model of open access journals as opposed to commercial publishers? what was the consequence of this?
open access journals do not have an income from subscriptions so researchers have to pay an Article Processing Charge to get their article published
-> rise of mega journals & predatory journals
how did double dipping come about?
established publishers tried to profit from the new business model created by open access journals, by starting their own open access mega journals and offering open acces in their subscription journals (hybrid model)
why has there been an explosive growth of scientific papers in the past 100 years?
- cus more researchers were hired
- cus researchers were increasingly motivated to publish more (PUBLISH OR PERISH)
what is meant by “double dipping” in science?
practice in science in which journals make
money both by journal subscriptions and by article fees for open access
define predatory journal
scientific journal that gives the impression of being genuine (peer-reviewed, with mechanisms of error control, promise of longevity) without adhering to the standards; tries to lure scientists to pay APCs for very limited service
why do some authors think we have not overcome the replication crisis? in other words they think psych cannot improve its scientific record
- the problems have already been known for a long time
- editors and reviewers only introduce some small changes
- even w data storage & preregistration, psychologists continue to make the same research mistakes
define registered report
type of research article that is evaluated by
scientific journals before the data are collected; goal is to make the evaluation independent of the obtained results and solely dependent on the research question, the research design, and the proposed analyses
define bayesian statistics
data analysis that deviates from the traditional hypothesis testing with p-values; estimates the relative probabilities of Ho and Ha; is hoped to correct existing misunderstandings of statistics
What is the pottery barn rule?
the moral obligation of a scientific journal to publish a failure to replicate a finding previously published in the journal
What is statcheck?
a programme to check for stats errors
resutls showed that 50% of papers contained errors
What is the replication crisis aka crisis of confidence?
a crisis of confidence in psych research,
cus many published findings cannot be
repeated if studies are rerun, questioning the reliability of scientific findings
arose cus psychologists and doctors published very bold cliams so ppl examined the results after 2010
what are the 3 main factors that contributed to the replication crisis?
- misinterpreting statistical signficance as proof that the Ha is true
- publication bias making it difficult for unsuccessful replications to be published (file drawer problem & issue w conceptual replications that are only published when they reinforce the original finding)
- use of QRPs
what is the file drawer problem?
issue that the scientific literature badly represents the research done cus experiments that dont find significant differences are less likely to get published
what is conceptual replication? and its pros and cons?
replication in which an effect is investigated
differently from the original study
pro: is good to examine the generality of a finding
con: can magnify biases in scientific lit if combined with file drawer problem
what is open science?
science practice where all relevant information is made easily available, so that other researchers can check the findings and integrate them in their own research
define repository
in science is a location where data and analysis programs are stored, so that others can retrieve them (typically on the internet)
What are the 3 pillars of open science?
- Open Data: so anybody can assess the evidence
- Open Materials: so anybody can replicate the study
- Preregistration: So that a posterori tinkering with analyses becomes visible
what does FAIR and TOP stand for in the open science framework?
Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable data
Transparency and Openness Promotion guidelines
What is TOP and its 8 standards?
Transparency and Openness Promotion
(TOP) guidelines:
list of criteria written by advocates of open science describing the extent to which journals adhere to the standards of open and reproducible science
1. Citation standards
2. Data transparency
3. Analytic methods transparency
4. Research methods transparency
5. Design and analysis transparency
6. Preregistration of studies
7. Preregistration of analysis plans
8. Replication
what is secondary data analysis?
reanalysis of existing data to address new research questions
What is big data?
collection and use of large
datasets for secondary
data analysis
What is the Manylabs projects?
tried to replicate psych phenomena
bad news: some flashy findings didnt replicate
good news: other findings do replicate well
What does the Psychological Science Accelerator aim for?
aims to
-accelerate cumulative reliable knowledge
- counter WEIRDness through diversity
- rapidly employ huge distributed studies to evaluate research findings
What are 6 criticisims on Open Science?
- Increased bureaucracy and more work for researchers
- Most data are never downloaded, many preregistrations aren’t adhered to, badges aren’t checked
- Too much focus on replication, not enough on creativity
- Its expensive and can compound inequalities
- Not always feasible or desirable
- Some approaches may decline (e.g. field studies, qualitative research)
what are quantitaive research methods?
research methods based on quantifiable data and associated with the hypothetico-deductive model
What are the assumptions underlying quantitative research methods?
- there is an outside reality that can be discovered
- science aims to find universal causal relationships
- we try to avoid confounds & noise in data by controlling circumstances of study
- the researcher is a source of bias & noise, thus standardized measurements and instruments are necessary
- progress happens through falsification
what are the 3 types of quantitative research?
descriptive
relational
experimental
what is descriptive research?
- type of quantitative research method
- focus on observation & carefully monitoring the situation
- trying to express variables in numbers
- usually involves a few measures from a large group of participatns
what is relational research?
- searching for correlations between measures to establish whether there is a relation between them
- humans cannot intuitevly detect correlations reliably and may even perceive illusory correlations
- use of factor analysis to find the structure in datasets with many variables
what is experimental research?
- searching for cause-effect relationships by excluding confounding variables (but the more u exclude, the more artifical ur research)
- experiments often not possible
- only suspected causes should be manipulated, everything else should remain constant
what does the hierarchy of different types of research look like?
top to bottom (with bottom having less credibility)
1. meta analysis
2. randomized controlled studies
3. follow up studies
4. case control studies
5. cross sectional surveys
6. case reports
define confounding variable
variable that was not taken into account in the study and that may be the origin of the effect observed
what is the ideographic vs nomothetic approach? what does quantitative and qualitative research do?
ideographic approach: the conclusions of a study stay limited to the phenomenon under study QUALITATIVE
nomothetic approach: a study is run in search of universal principles that exceed the confines of the study QUANTITATIVE
what are the 2 types of data collection and the 3 general methods used in quantitative research?
data collection:
- semi structured interviews
- focus groups
then transcribed in one of 3 ways:
- grounded theory
- interpretative phenomonological analysis (IPA)
- discourse analysis
what is the evolutionary account of philosophy of sicence?
the view that the rise and fall of scientific ideas follow Darwinian principles of random variation and natural selectoin
so the criterion determining whether an idea will survive may be whether society at large finds the idea interesting and useful
define bracketing
requirement in qualitative research to look at a phenomenon with an open mind and to free oneself from preconceptions
What is the quantitative imperative?
the convinction that you cannot know what you cannot measure
what are the strengths of the quantitative research method?
- lends itself well for statistical analyses of large datasets
- can produce precise predictions that can be tested
- makes comparison (between groups or subjects) possible/easier.
- easier to investigate confounds and validity threats
what are the weaknesses of the quantitative research method?
– little interest in the perception of participants
– research limited by what is measurable
– better suited to testing general theories than to finding solutions for specific situations so If you don’t have a well-developed theory yet, quantitative methods aren’t as helpful
how are quantitative psychologists like positivists?
- both try to “discovering” reality
- focus on revealing causal relationships
- experimental & correlational research
- research is designed nomothetically (in order to generalize)
- ppl are considered more or less interchangeable (most stats approaches have this as an assumption)
What could be an alternative to quantitative research, which resembles positivism?
Qualitative research!
How does qualitative research work as a method?
- participant observation, semi-structured interviews
- the researcher is the crucial measurement tool
- result: experiences of the researcher and/or interview transcripts
- aim: to understand the subjective experience of the individual
in what 2 ways could you see qualitative research?
- as a method in psych
- as a separate field that you cannot combine w quantitative research, different “paradigms” since they have different assumptions, methods, etc.
What is Thematic Analysis?
-qualitative research method
- for systematically finding patterns of meaning (themes) across a data set
- the pattern one is interested in should be the answer to a particular research question
- compatible w different philosophical pov, depending on intention of the researcher
What are the 6 steps of Thematic Analysis?
- Becoming familiar with the data.
- Generating initial codes (highlighting text and anotating it to find common points across transcripts)
- Searching for themes.
- Reviewing themes (quality control).
- Defining and naming themes.
- Writing the report.
What is the grounded theory method?
- systematic analysis to build a theory about a specific problem
- qualitative research method
- Based on structured and semi-structured interviews, the researcher writes a problem analysis:
– What is going on?
– With what kind of problems are my participants dealing?
– How do they try to solve these problems? - Strongly inductive
What is Interpretative phenomonological analysis (IPA)?
- tries to capture ppl’s subjective experiences
- what is it like for them to be in a certain position?
- the interpretative ability of the researcher then acts as a “measuring instrument”
what are the strengths of qualitative research as a method?
– direct involvement with situation
– generates theories and enables exploration
– responsive to the needs of participants
what are the weaknesses of qualitative research as a method?
– Less suitable for demonstrating general laws
– little room for precise predictions/falsification
– less suitable for deciding between theories
– largely based on introspection/subjective evaluation
how can qualitative research as a method complement quantitative research?
- helps generate theories
- helps us go from general laws to applied cases
- well suited for quickly mapping out complex situations
BUT the subjecivity of qualitative is bad for the goal of quantitative
can qualitative research as a paradigm complement quantatitive research?
no! cus in this vthey aim for something fundamentally different
qualitative: study subjectivity & experiences in real life context
What are Marecek’s misconceptions about qualitative research?
- that Qualitative and quantitative provide the same kind of
understanding: quantitative about correlations and causality in general populations, qualitative about the individual subjective experience - that Qualitative research is a first exploration: no its a full stand alone method
- that Qualitative research is purely inductive: no they also have prior research and prior ideas, it doesnt start from nothing
- that Qualitative research is the same as quantitative
psychology but w/o numbers: theyre different
why does Marecek argue that qualitative research stands firmly on its own?
- it has its own epistemological stance, its own legitimate means of gaining knowledge
-> so it enough in its own right - its not just a first stage of quantitative research
- answers different kinds of questions than quantitative
how are qualitative research methodologoical criteria different?
- The researcher’s contribution to interpreting the data is its strength: researchers should be subjective
- The research does not need to be replicable
- Objectivity is not the goal, there is not ‘truth’, reality is a construction
- So, methodological criteria that are based on the idea of an underlying existing truth, miss the point!
what are methodological criteria for quantiative psych vs qualitative psych?
criteria for quantitative psych:
- Validity
* Reliability
* Replicability
* Transparency
* Generalizability
* Objectivity (e.g. doubleblindedness)
criteria for qualitative psych:
- Rigour
* Sensitivity to context
* Coherence
* Commitment
* Impact & importance
* Reflexivity
What is the hermeneutics movement?
movement that views
- The traditional quantitative approach is unsuitable for grasping the richness of the human mind & experience
- Quantitative approach explains, hermeneutics tries to
understand
What is the phenomenological perspective?
- extension of the qualitative approach
- 20th century movement that tried to develop amethodology focused on interpreting qualia, consciousness etc.
- Verstehen vs. Erklären
What is meant by the verstehen vs erklaren debate?
understanding vs explaining, what should the role of psychology be?
understanding: encourages a deeper
comprehension of the social world by considering the subjective meanings that people give to their actions.
the fundamental task of psych is not to explain behaviour but to understand ppls actions and motives. not the behaviour itself, but its meaning, should be central
What is social constructionism?
- says that knowledge is a social construct
- say that science/psych transforms reality, so maybe science is independent of the reality it studies? instead of passively describing it
- consequence: theories should not be judged on truth but on ability to generate action, to transform our life
- so they deny possibility & necessity of striving for objectivity and truth
- so according to them, we as researchers contribute to what is “true”
what makes some people say that objectivity/truth are not feasible?
social constructionism (science constructs reality) + those who say that the work of kuhn shows that science is irrational
in other words there is no truth, theories are just stories about how the world works
What is postmodernism?
rejects trust in science and tech
How did Sokal’s work in physics affect psych?
he found that there is no objective reality, everything is context dependent & relative
-> so theres no absolute truth
so pro postmodern science, independent of objective truth
-> BUT IT WAS A HOAX he does think theres an objective truth, and thinks that our job as scientistis is to discover these truths
-> did this to show the political consequences of a relativist view (if u can deny the existence of truth, then what about genocide? did that not happen?)
What 5 other demarcation criteria and characteristics of science are described in the book?
- Systematicity and cumulativeness of knowledge: research should build on previous research and avoid previous pitfalls, by being made public.
- Use of well-defined methods
- Clarity; so all researchers interpret them the same way.
- Prediction: theories should allow for predictions to be made based on it.
- Knowledge is revisable: new findings should be allowed to alter previous theories in order to generate new paradigms.
Do you think psychology is a science? evaluate using the 7 demarcation criteria
I do think psychology is a science.
Science relies on the scientific method for its qualification as a science, and since psychology follows this method, it should be granted the status of science. It is subject to verification as well as falsification in the way that the science is conducted (all theories and predictions made need to be formulated in a way that allows for falsification, and the findings must be verifiable). Moreover, psychological knowledge is cumulative (as can be seen in the use of previous research to build the foundation of new research) and is published systematically thus allowing all psychologists to read each other’s research. The methods used in empirical psychological research are subject to much revision and discussion but are well-defined in most papers. Psychological papers are written in a clear manner and include theories that allow for predictions to be made on the findings. Lastly, psychological knowledge is revisable, as there is constantly new theories being formulated and research being done.
What would psychology as a science ideally look like? How can we make psychology as a discipline more scientific?
Ideally, psychology as a science would involve replicable experiments, but since its subject is humans and we are all unique, it makes replicability quite hard. Important factors in making psychology as a discipline as scientific as possible is preregistration and peer reviewing. Moreover, I think increased collaborations could allow for further progress in the field.
What are the assumptions underlying qualitative research?
- The individual subjective reality is the only one that matters.
- Attempts to control the situation’s circumstances makes the research “useless” in a way because it is artificially changed and not realistic.
- Immersion of the researcher in the situation is essential for the understanding of the psychological situation.
- Ideographic approach: they dont try to generalize their research’s findings to other situations.
5.prioritize Induction over deduction, seeing the complete situation with an open mind (also called bracketing). - Qualitative research is still evidence-based. Data collection and analysis are still very important in this field.
What is a semi-structured interview?
A semi-structured interview is an interview in which the interviewer uses a set of pre-written questions but can still use follow-up questions and speak freely outside of these main open-ended questions.
What is a focus group?
A focus group is a group of participants that discuss several questions relating to a topic together.
What is discourse analysis?
tries to see how we can learn about human interaction through the language they employ.
How far back does the history of qualitative inquiry in psychology go?
Wilhelm Wundt’s Volkerpsychologie, envisioning 2 branches: one focused on lab study of basic psych functions, the other on higher psychological functions studied through methods similar to qualitative psych
What challenges does Marecek highlight regarding qualitative work in psychology in the United States?
tendency in psychology departments in the United States to dismiss qualitative work as “subjective,” “anecdotal,” or “unscientific.”
What intellectual price does the author claim is associated with a narrow vision of psychological methods?
estricts psychologists to a single method, the scientific method, leading to the acceptance of its assumptions and deformations without critical examination
what is meant by the term “strong objectivity”?
used to emphasize the explicit acknowledgment of the qualitative researchers subjectivity
what types of validity matter in qualitative research?
- external validity, as research is grounded in real life contexts
- contextual validity, ensuring all relevant features of the social context are considered
What are some ethical concerns in qualitative research?
especially in studies where data collection is not clearly delimited.
Questions about the privacy, consent, and protection of groups or organizations studied
what were neurologists and when did they appear?
- doctors attempting to treat mild mental disorders with communication and hypnosis
- appeared at the end of the 19th century
- Freud
how did world war I affect the role of psychology in society?
Pre WWI: psycholists largely excluded from treatment, they just administered psych tests and were subordinate to psychiatrists
Post WWI: ppl wanted treatment for shell shock and mental health issues became increasingly important (clinical psych starts becoming a thing)
what post WWII developments further strengthened the position of psychologists in treatment?
– the antipsychiatry movement
– scientific research on the efficacy of psychotherapies
– the fact that psychiatrists became more involved with the prescription of psychoactive drugs
– the increase of social management and individualisation in society.
what were Rogers ideas on client-centered therapy?
client centered therapy: solutions are looked for while the therapist listens and supports the client
a good counseler:
1. shows unconditional positive regard
2. empathic understanding
3. congruence (genuine support & understanding, not just as a therapeutic technique)
define applied psychology
application of psychological knowledge and research methods to solve practical problems -> impacts lots of ppls daily lives
define clinical psychology
branch of psychology applying psychological
knowledge to the assessment and treatment of mental disorders
define shell shock
anxiety response on battlefield that prevents
soldiers from functioning properly; was one of the first topics addressed by applied psychology
what was the antipsychiatry movement?
a pressure group started in the 1960s that called into question the usefulness of the prevailing psychiatric treatments (lobotomy, electric shocks)
what were 3 recommendations of the antipyschiatry movement towards better treatment?
- Respecting the rights and dignities of patients
- Hospitalization should be as short as possible and aimed at reintegration
- Initiatives outside of the clinic have to be taken to prevent hospitalization
define psychoactive drugs
medicines prescribed for mental disorders
how did knowledge of psychology become of public interest?
- increased role of social management, which clinical psych knowledge could help w
- increased reliance on welfare state also led to the need of clinical psych who could manage it
- generally there was an increased knowledge about psych in the pop
what is social management?
management and control of deviant individuals and individuals in need by official social services
define welfare state
socio-political system in which individuals insure themselves against setbacks via taxes, which are used by the state to provide welfare services
what is an authenticity test?
test to determine whether a person is who he/ she pretends to be and to ascertain guilt or innocence
what were qualifying tests?
test to find the best person for a task
what were diagnostic tests?
tests to determine which condition a person has
what were Hanson’s 3 basic conditions for all tests?
- Intent: tests are planned and given with a purpose, not randomly
- Proxy indicator for some condition: not the performance on the test but what it says about something else matters
- Status difference between test giver and taker
What were 2 characteristics of psych tests that were increasingly seen as necessary?
- validity
- reliability
define reliability
the degree to which the outcome of a test is the same if the test is repeated under unchanged circumstances or if an equivalent test is used
define validity
the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure; determined by correlating the test results with an external criterion
which clinical methods were found to not score high on validity and reliability? why?
clinical impressions & unstructure interviews
cus different test administrators judge applicants diffeerently & implicit personality theory
what is implicit personality theory?
the idea that every person uses their own stereotypes and individuating information about a person to make predictions about others’ behaviour
explained some of the variance between types of applicants ppl chose
what were found to be possible alternatives to unstructed interviews and the biases associated with them (unstructured interviews)?
- structured interviews: interview in which all
interviewees receive the same set of questions - standardized psychological tests: tests with good reliability and validity, information about expected performances, and which are administered uniformly
- IQ tests: test supposed to measure intelligence; focus on learning potential. results correlate w school performance & suitability for intellectually demanding occupations
- Achievement ests: standardized measures of knowledge on a given topic
- Personality tests: meausre relatively stable & distinctive patterns of behaviour
What was the Woodworths personal data sheet questionnaire?
example of a personality test to identify soldiers suspectible to shell shocks
but did not take (face) validity and social desirability into account
-> was later improved
define face validity
estimating the validity of a test by estimating to what extent the items of the test agree with one’s own beliefs; is not evidence-based
define social desirability
bias people have to present themselves in a manner they think will be viewed favourably
by others
what does the trait theory of personality state?
that ppl differ based on basic personality traits (relatively stable characteristics used to interact w the environment) even in the non-pathological range
most researchers believe in the Big Five, measured through self report (but catell defeneded 16 traits, and eyseneck 3)
What is the Big 5
the 5 personality traits many researchers believe to make up our personality
Openness to experience
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism.
Why has psych test administration become increasingly popular?
- Increased individualization in society (more interest in how people differ and how they are unique)
- More reliance on science-based evidence
- Tests allow assessing and predicting human behavior
How did industrial psychology come about?
Due to industrialization, humans were seen as a link in production chain and industrial psychology attempted improving efficiency and motivation at workplace
define industrial psychology
first theory about how work should be organised; strongly influenced by Taylor’s scientific management
what was taylors scientific managament theory?
- split production into stages & find ways to speed it up
- management was “thinking body” and employees the “acting body” of the company that would accept any work if paid enough
- tasks had to be made simple so that everyone could do them without much practice
- thought that w/o monitoring & rewarding, gangs would form who opposed productivity
What was the human relations movement?
- following Hawthorne plant studies & Hawthorne effect
- by Mayo
- in 1920s
- second main theory of how work should be organised
- stressed the humanity of the employees and the importance of social relations
- thought that workers would work better if they velt valued & esteemed (as opposed to the previous focus on pay & physical environment)
What was the Hawthorne effect?
if participants were aware that they are part of a study, they would act differently
What were the 3 main organisational psychology movements?
- Scientific Management / Industrial Psych
- Human Relations Movement (1920s)
- Human Resource Management (1980s)
What was human resource management?
- 3rd main theory of how work should be organised
- 1980s
- stressed desire for self-actualization in employees
- employees will perform best if given autonomy and authority
- more intellectually demanding jobs replaced factory work & level of affluence increased among most employees
why were the hawthorne studies still taught despite being flawed & biased?
- The story is too good not to be true
- Writeres do not read the original sources
- The underlying message is correct
- The story benefits psychologists and management
EXAMPLE OF PSEUDOHISTORY OF SCIENCE
what is pseudohistory of science?
text that looks like a history of science, but that contains systematic errors because of a desire to present the research as more impressive and important than it was and to depict the scientist as a genius who has to battle against the lack of understanding and appreciation by the peers
Name 5 warning signs of Pseudohistory
- romanticism
- flawless personalities
- monumental, single handed discoveries
- “eureka” type insight
- absence of any error
- general oversimplification or idealization
- context is missing (culutural, social, scientific…)
What are reasons why psych is claimed to be a science?
- foundation of psych as an academic discipline was legitimised on 2 pillars: long respectful past (philosophy) & uses the scientific method
- science is defined by its method rather than by its subject matter: and psych is defined as the study of the human mind using the scientific method
- the scientific method has not let psychologists down and is fully integrated in mainstream psych research
- strong relationships to other sciences
what is the toothbrush problem in psychology?
lack of shared and generally accepted theories due to a focus on methodology & publication bia towards novel and innovative findings
what are 5 more demarcation criteria? exclude verification & falsification
- Science builds on previous knowledge and new knowledge should be made public
- The methods used in a scientific field must be agreed-upon by the researchers in the field
- Clarity so there is no room for interpretations
- Scientific theories should enable predictions about the future
- Knowledge must be accepted as revisable, as new findings can later lead to new theories
What are the reasons that psychology is not seen as a science?
- little overlap between the stereotypical view of a scientist and the stereotypical view of a psychologist
- less psychologist researchers than psychology practitioners (latter are less interested in research, more in intuition)
- unlike scientific results, psych findings are easy to understand (so ppl think they have as much knowledge about psych issues as psychologists or that they can keep up w psych research)
- not all psychologists are convinced of the added value of the scienitific method (hermenetuic)
what are the stereotypes of scientists vs psychologists?
scientist:
- male
- difficult
- not creative or varied
- no social skills
- obsessive
psychologist
- emphatetic & helpful
- abnormal behaviour
- easier than natural sciences
- shrink stereotype w couch therapy
where did the critique of a scientific psychology come from?
- dithley: thought that psych was a mental science not a natural one
- psychoanalysis & related schools: valued unconscious processes
- humanistic psych: emphasized humanity of ppl
- neglect of individual differences in scientific psych
- research methods govern research questions
- psych has been confined too long to white western males (led to feminist & postcolonial psych)
- the scientific approach to psych is not as objective & universally valid as ppl claim it to be
- critical psychology
What reasons did Dithely give as to why psychology belongs to the “mental sciences”? as in why is a hermeneutic approach more effective
- it deals with the content of the human mind
- it describes the human experience in its totality (including cognition, emotion, and volition)
- it sees a persons life within its ocntext
- only the method of understanding can study the full human experience (levels of understanding)
what are Dilthey’s 3 levels of understanding?
- elementary understanding: for simpler problems in life
- empathy: for reexperiencing others’ experiences
- hermeneutic understanding: through which an observed person is better understood than they understand themselves
How did Freud’s psychoanalysis use the hermeneutic approach?
cus it tried to understand the content of the human mind through interpretation on the basis of the psychoanalytic theories
Who were some similar thinkers to Freud and the hermeneutic approach?
→ Carl Jung (personal vs collective unconscious)
→ Alfred Adler (inferiority complex)
→ Erik Erikson (new psychosocial crises in various development stages)
→ John Bowlby (attachment theory)
⇒ later more emphasis based on the functioning of the ego (ego psychology) and one’s relations to others and time (object relations)
What was Roger & Maslow’s humanistic approach?
- reaction against psychoanalysis & behaviourism
- stressed that people are human, inherently positive, endowed with free will and living within a socio-cultural context
- therapist tries to understand the client & share their experiences without interpretation
what is feminist psychology?
movement in psychology aimed at understanding women; is particularly concerned with the way in which women are treated in mainstream psychology
what is postcolonial psychology?
movement in psychology addressing the issues of
racism and the ways in which dominant groups treat other groups
what is critical psychology?
movement in psychology that criticises mainstream psychology. its points:
1. knowledge does not refer to an outside reality (idealism>realism). all knowledge is relative dependening on context
2. scientific knowledge is a social construct
3. psychologists have a moral responsibility cus the world changes with its impact
what is unconscious plagiarism?
term used by Bornstein to indicate how the scientific & hermeneutic approach in psych have influenced each other without the proponents being aware of it
what is the problem with psychologists teaching the history of psychology (the traditional method) ?
- focus on celebrating achievements in psych
- tainted w hindsight bia, thus emphasizing the important aspects more
- generally history can be written in many ways so every history is just a version of the story
how should the history of psychology be taught according to Furumoto (new method)?
→ investigate the assumptions giving rise to current psychology
→ try to understand the historica & social context
→ be done by independent historians and be detached and critical towards the field (so that they have no vested interested)
