W1: Mind-Body Problem Flashcards
Ch.7, L7 & L8, PA 4 and tutorial
What is the feeling of the self?
The feeling of being an individual with feelings and beliefs and whose interactions w/ the environment follow a purpose
Who proposed Mary’s thought experiment?
Frank Jackson
What is the mind- body problem?
The problem of reconciling how the mind and the brain work together
What are the two types of -isms?
- Monism (there is only one kind of substance)
a. materalism (everything is material)
b. idealism (everything is mental) - Dualism (there are two kinds of substances); substance-dualism (mind and body are kinds of distinct entities)
What are the 3 main views of the mind-brain problem?
- Dualism: the mind is independent of the body
- Materialism: mind is just a by-product of the brain’s biological processing
- Functionalism: the mind is present in the brain, however it could be copied to other such brains
What is the mind?
The faculties of humans & animals used to perceive, feel, think, remember, and want
What did Descartes say about the mind-body problem?
- Views the body, but not the mind, as a machine
- Mind and body must therefore be different entities
- Mind is a causal director of the body
What do religions think about the mind-body problem?
The soul is a divine gift from god which will later leave the body
What did Plato think about the mind-body problem?
The soul is a part of the cosmos-soul from the realm of ideal forms which containted true ideas
Why is dualism an intuitevily attractive model?
- it gives humans free will
- accounts for existence of consciousness in humans
What are the 3 problems with dualism?
- Interaction problem: how can an immaterial entity cause physical events?
- Causal closure problem: if every physical event has a physical cause, sp where does the spiritual mind enter? how about the law of conservation of energy? total amount of energy has to stay constant, where does the energy to do something physical come from?
- Brain damage problem: why would a nonmaterial entity react to brain damage?
What was Leibniz’s view on the mind-body problem?
- saw universe as a living organism consisting of energetic units called monads
- thought the human mind has more than just conscious thinking
What, according to Leibniz, were the 4 types of monads?
- Simple monads: formthe bodies of organic & inorganic matter, have unconscious perception, and try to keep to the harmony of the universe
- Sentient monads: in all living organisms & can feel pleasure and pain
- Rational monads: the human mind, these know apperception, perceiving & reasoning about perceptions using empirical & innate evidence
- Supreme monads: controls & motivates all monads (God)
What was Kant’s view on dualism?
thought of the unconscious representations as “dark representations” but left them out of his “more serious” research
What are 2 reasons why dualism lost its appeal?
- Discovery of how important unconscious processes were
- Dissapearance of “mystery immaterial forces
What “mystery immaterial forces” were found to not exist?
- Phlogiston: substance believed to make things flammable, disproven by combustion discovery
- VItal force: substance believed to be in all alive organisms, disproven by understanding of cell theory
When did Materialism start gaining attention?
towards end of 19th century
What is materialism?
- Idea that the mind is just the brain functioning, there is only matter, mind is a part of physical world and obeys laws of nature
- matter can be fields, states, processes, functions…etc
What are the 3 types of materialism?
- Eliminative materialism
- Reductive materialism
- Non-reductive materialism
What are 2 problems with materialism?
- Identity problem: how can 2 events be experienced as the same, and talked about, if each brain encodes it differently according to their dna etc.
- How can the conscious mind occur as a by-product of the biological brain? subquestions:
a. mental states (or not): if the mind does not exist as a distinct substance, how can mental states exist at all? should we eliminate mental states?
b. Subjective experience (or not)
c. Reductionism (or not)
What are mental states?
we use mental states (“to want ice cream”) explain behaviour (“buying an ice cream”)
- this is called belief-desire psychology, and is part of folk psychology but also of scientific psych
What is the idea of eliminiative materialism?
MENTAL STATES ELIMINATED
- Mind is just physical, the brain functioning
- there is no consciousness or free will
- Humans often termed survival machines or robots in this framework
Who were 2 big supporters of eliminative materialism and their points?
- Churchland: saw consciousness as folk psychology (a collection of beliefs stemming from lay people w no empirical basis)
- Dawkins: humans are slaves of their DNA
What is the problem with eliminative materialism?
mental states seem too important to eliminate, they are the only things that would explain behaviour in a straightforward way
What is reductive vs non reductive materalism
In common:; Materialism with mental states, but deny that the mind exists as a substance. so have to explain how mental states are rooted in brain states (this is what identity theory & functionalism try)
Reductive: mental states exist but are always related to brain states, every mental process is physical. (type type identity theory)
Nonreductive: mental states exist, but are related to brain tokens (token token identity theory, multiple realizability)
Why does consciousness pose a problem for reductionism?
Reductionism involves the type type identity theory which says that all mental states are brain states, which goes against the principle of consciousness as that is a very subjective experience
What is identity theory?(type type)
in reductive materialism
- maintains that mental states are brain states
- “to want an ice cream” = “brain state x”
- developed to keep a causal role for mental states
- “john bought an ice cream cus he wanted one” is true, but really means “john bought ice cream cus he had brain state y”
What are the 3 steps to reductionism (in general)?
- Start w a scientific law in the higher order science (the science to be reduce, ex: psych)
- Establish bridge laws: one-to-one correspondence relations between terms in the higher order science & terms in the lower order science (the reducing science, ex: neuroscience)
- Show that the higher order law follows from the laws of the reducing science given the bridge laws
What is reduction?
process of explaining complex psychological phenomena by breaking them down into simpler components
What is type-type identity theory?
in reductive materialism- Stronger version
- types of mental states (“wanting an ice cream”) are identical to types of brain states (“brain state x”) across individuals and time points
- implies a one-to-one mapping of mental states to brain states
- if true, then full reduction of psych to neuroscience is possibility and in teleportation your full “mind” would be intact since it is the same as ur brain states
Why do most researchers think type-type identity theory is too strong?
Mental states are not always identifcal to brain states, as they are often encoded in different ways by different people and across time and depending on the situation. ex. of differences in encoding:
- neural plasticity: same mental functions can be performed in different ways
- individual differences in physical makeup suggest that brains differ
- even same brain could encode certain thoughts or feelings differently at different time points
why is reduction not possible in psychology?
because it would require a type type identity theory which has been disproven (in order to have straightforward reduce principles you need it to be connected in a type-type way)
What is token-token identity theory?
non reductionist materialism
Multiple realizability: one mental state can be realized by multiple different brain states
each token (specific mental state) related to another token (one particular realization at a specific time and context and place in the brain by someone), so same mental state can be realized differently in the brain
- blocks reductionism since we cannot create bridge laws because we cannot identify two types that we could equal to each other
What events led to Functionalism?
- if only token token identity & multiple realizability holds then it might not be useful to characterize mental staes by the brain structures
- computer science showed that info may transcend the medium (we can transfer info from one machine to a different machine, ex: Turing machine) while mind as a by product of the brain did not arise
-> provided solution to identity problem, as the encoding of human experiences may be irrelevant as long as outcome info is preserved (so wouldnt matter that our brains work differently, we could still talk about it)
When did functionalism in philosophy of mind arise?
1970s
What is functionalism?
- the mind is the software if the brain/body is the computer, mind is a programme that runs on the brain
- mental states are characterized by their function aka their role, not their realization (in the hardware)
ex: fear of spiders is a function that makes people avoid spiders, say they are afraid of spiders…etc. - neutral towardx both materialism & dualism
- investigate the functions of mental states, not the precise physical ways in which its realized in the brain, or its physical makeup: not all concepts are best understood by studying their physical makeup (10eur is 10eur cus of what you can do with it, not cus of what its made of)
Is functionalism compatible with materialism?
Not with reductionism, but functionalism IS compatible with non reductive materialism & multiple realisability: mental states ultimately are brain states, but the correspondence between mental and brain states is not one-to-one (so token token identity theory is compatible)
What was the thought experiment of teleportation?
what would happen to the mind if body was taken apart and put together elsewhere
What were the 3 views on the teleportation experiment (materialist, dualist, functionalist)?
- Dualist: Once body is gone even for a second, mind dissapears. in any case mind would not be teleported along with you since its seperate from body
- Functionalist: since mind is defined by functions not physical makeup, mind remains upon reassembly (even if reassembled differently) as its only the info which is stored in brain
- Materialist: mind remains only if exact same brain is reassembled (as mind is defined by the specific physical makeup of the brain)
When is telecopying someone’s mind possible?
if one assumes a functionalist stance
What scientific fields align well with functionalism?
cognitive psychology & neuropsychology as it helps understand how the software of the brain works
What are 2 problems with functionalism?
- Challenge posed by cognitive neuroscience: goes against functionalist principles as it wishes to examine human info processing as based on examining the brain parts involved in psych. functions (cognitive neuroscience impact has been questioned)
- Symbol grounding problem: where do our brains get symbol grounding aka meaning from?
What are memes?
information units that tries to replicate themselves
its sometimes argued that memes use humans as survival machines and may later spread to other organisms
-> so are we slaves of the information/meme realm?
What are Marr’s 3 levels of studying cognitive information processing?
- Computational level: what the system does
- Algorithmic level: through which algorythms it does this
- Implementation level: how the algorithms are realized in neural hardware
Why was/is cognitive neuroscience popular?
Brain images are appealing because:
1. offer a simple message (area x does function y)
2. reductionist explanations seem more definite & scientific
3. biological explanations seem to indicate innateness, which ppl like
4. brain images do not reveal the stats underlying it (so might seem super true when it isnt)
what does putnams multiple realizability thesis involve?
states that mental states aren’t tied to specific brain structures, but that they can be realized by various physical structures. aka same mental results can be achieved by different parts of the brain/body
What is the main difference between functionalism and both forms of materialism?
Both forms of materialism focus on the physical nature of mental states and processes, stating that the mind is a by-product of the brain’s biological processing. They explain mental processing in terms of processes in the brain.
On the other hand, functionalism focuses on the purpose behind mental processes and states, explaining them through adaptation or purpose.
How could you argue that functionalism and materialism are not mutually exclusive?
non-reductive materialism can be compatible with functionalism. This type of materialism, while still keeping a focus on the physical processes underlying mental states, also recognize that there might be more to it, like a functional significance.
What is consciousness
Rich & coherent private first person experience people have about themselves and the world around them
What are Anderson’s 4 sources of embodied information?
- Human physiology: bodily limitatoins restrict or broaden options
- Evolutionary history: certain situations for animals become associated w actions that enhance successfull coping w the situation
- Practical activities during reasoning: trying out possible solutions instead of continued reasoning
- Socio-cultural situatedness: social context importantly limits the types of actions that can be performed
What is the biggest difference between humans and computers?
Humans are conscious of own info processing
What are the 3 proposed types of consciousness?
- access consiousness: info that has an effect and can be reported and used consiouscly
- phenomological consciousness: rich conscious human experience that is deeper than can be described
- self monitoring: ability of a cognitive system to monitor its own processing and gain info on it
What are some examples of things outside access consciousness?
- blindsight: the ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them, a condition which can occur after certain types of brain damage.
- Masked priming: presenting a quick prime between a mask & target and seeing effect
- Implicit learning/memory
- Libet’s study on the initiation of movement: showed that maybe action control isnt conscious either
When do we think something is caused by free will?
- a conscious thought precedes an action
- the thought is consistent with the action
- no alternative cause for the action is salient
What is a proposed solution to the the symbol grounding problem?
Idea of embodied cognition: interactions between human body & environment form the grounding of human cognition, so mind is more connected to brain & body than functionalism claims
What is the difference between conscious and unconscious processing?
unconscious precessing less rich & integrated than conscious processing & humans cant act on it
What is a model of access consciousness?
Global Workspace Model: compares human mind to a theatre, a lot of activity is going on behind the scenes, but the activity on the scene must be visible to all, in order to synchronize the various activities. this is the function of consciousness
what is required for phenomological consciousness?
qualia: qualities of conscious thoughts that give the thoughts a rich and vivid meaning, grounded in interactions with world
that gives meaning
For who do qualia & associated thought experiments pose a problem?
Functionalists & materalists =
Functionalism&computers: a turing machine can do operations similar to human reasoning, but qualia?
Materalism: if all there is is physical, why do qualia escape a physical description of the world? (we cannot pinpoint where qualia are in us)
what 3 thought experiments showed the necessity of defining qualia?
- Chinese room: shows difference in processing in humans & computers. if one doesnt speak chinese but receives instructions on what to reply to what, you could fool someone into thinking u speak chinese, without actually having any understanding
- Mary thought experiment: a color scientist, Mary, sees world in b&w and learns everything physical about color (wavelength, optical patterns…etc.). yet if she could actually see color, she would actually know what its like to see color, so she will learn something new (?), so more to consciousness than perception/knowledge? something subjective. doesnt need to be an argument for dualism but just shows that materialism has a hard time explaining qualia (similar to what is it like to be a bat experiment, if u learned everything about it still wouldnt be the same as being a bat)
- Zombie thought experiment: imagine an identifcal twin of the self but w/o qualia who would not have the consciousness we do. it would behave the same as us, but could not feel pain for ex.
What is the Turing Test?
- have to grant the computer consciousness if we cannot distinguish its output from a human being (ex: chatgpt)
What did the Chinese room experiment show?
- that passing the Turing test may be necessary but not sufficient ground ofr consciousness
- that computer can never develop meaning
What is the weak vs strong ai thesis?
Weak ai thesis: computer is a useful tool for understanding human cognition (can help us in that way)
Strong ai thesis: appropriately programmed computer has a mind
What is the hard problem of consciousness?
Chalmers
How is subjective experience possible? How is it associated with physical reality? does every subjective experience go along with a specific brain process?
how does one go with the other
What is the cognitive closure hypothesis?
Philosopher McGinn
maybe the structure of our cognition just doesnt permit us to ever comprehend the problem of consciousness
ex: A dog cant learn the pythagorean theorem either
Why do we think free will exists?
- we see that organisms, such as humans, operate autonomily aka our behaviour seems to come from ourselves
- we are used to holding ppl responsible for their behaviour (law)
-> this requires free will/freedom in some form
For who is free will a problem?
Materalists, cus in their extreme views we are slaves of the genes/rules of physics etc.
What are Walter’s 3 conditions of free will?
- the intention of behaviour precedes behaviour (argument against: libets study)
- the behaviour wasnt necessary, you could have done something else (thats why in law there is the distinction between “under duress” and “voluntarily” commiting a crime) (argument against: determinism)
- the intention of behaviour was the cause of the behaviour (argument against: how can an intention aka a mental state cause something physical?)
What has made people question whether intention actually precedes the behaviour?
- Libet studied timing of intentions vs behaviour
- Empirical studies showed that behaviour starts before brain makes decision/intention
- But libet did not reject free will, we prepare for many actions, free will is in the decision to inhibit some of these
What is determinism?
When people think that physical state of the world at t fully determines the physical state at t+1
seems to imply there is no “space” left for free will, you could not have done something else!
What are the arguments against determinism?
- quantum mechanics says that every action/behaviour has a probability of happening (so it is not already 100% or 0% determined)
but if my intention only determines my behaviour with some probability, i dont experience that as free will!
How can we save free will from all the criticisms?
- criticize libets experiments
- maintain that physics doesnt fully describe the world
- become a compatibilist (both free will and determinsim)
- conceptualize free will differently (not as a cause)
How did Stanovich defend free will against genetic determinism?
Humans have the reasoning necessary to focus on their own personal interests instead of the interests of their genes, since the info is a realm seperatate from the machine upon which it is implemented
According to Nagel, what is the main difficulty in addressing the mind-body problem?
Consciousness
most current discussions overlook or misunderstand the unique aspects of the debate & of consciousness
Why does Nagel critique reductionist analogies in the mind body problem?
because they are unlikely to help us understand the mind-brain relation
How does Nagel describe the subjective character of consciousness?
as “what it is like to be a …”
this subjective character is not captured by reductive analyses & cannot be explained solely by functionalism/materalism
What is extrapolation and does it help us understand consciousness?
extrapolation is using the human experience to try and understand the consciousness of other beings by imaging what its like to be them
its incomplete, since the human imagintion is limited to our own sensory capabilities (bats have vastly different sensory experiences for example so its hard for us to imagine what its like to be a bat)
there are also facts that are are not accesible to humans
Can we describe someone elses experience?
We can describe it objectively, but its limited by the observers ability to adopt the pov of the experiencer so its hard to fully understand the others subjective experience
How is the discussion on the subjective character of experience relevant to the mind-body problem?
if facts about experience are accessible only from one pov, it becomes mysterious how the true character of experience could be revealed in the physical operation of the organism
