W1 - Language Teaching Methods & Approaches Flashcards
approach
A broad theoretical perspective or research paradigm on language teaching that is used to justify a particular method; a more comprehensive and explicit concept than Anthony’s (1963) original proposal, that includes theories of the nature of language.
design
The curriculum objectives and the syllabus types, learning and teaching activities, the roles of teachers and learners, and instructional materials along with their form, function, and role in the teaching-learning process.
procedures
Techniques, practices, behaviors, and equipment observable in the classroom as well as the interaction patterns and strategies used by teachers and students.
lingua franca
common language used for communication among people who spoke different first languages
vernacular
The spoken form of a language or dialect native to a region or country rather than a literary or foreign language.
inductive approach
an approach based on exposure to the target language in use rather than through the rules
Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was popularized again at the beginning of the nineteenth century by a renewed focus on the systematic study of the grammar of classical Latin and of classical texts in schools and universities across Europe.
Notable proponents of this approach: Karl Ploetz (1819-1881) and schools and universities across Europe
Key elements (Kelly, 1969):
Instruction is given in the native language of the students;
Little use of the target language for communication;
Focus on grammatical parsing (i.e., forms and inflections of words);
Early reading of difficult texts;
Translation of sentences from the target language into the mother language (or vice versa);
Students are usually not able to use the language for communication;
The teacher does not have to be able to speak the target language fluently.
Direct Method
This approach arose as a viable alternative to the Grammar-Translation Approach by the end of the nineteenth century, especially in France and Germany; focused on the goal of teaching students to use rather than to analyze a language.
Notable proponents of this approach: Francois Gouin (1880) in Europe, and later Emile de Sauze in the early twentieth century in the United States
Key elements (Kelly, 1969):
No use of the mother tongue is allowed (i.e., the teacher does not need to know the students’ native language);
Lessons begin with dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style;
Actions and pictures are used to make meaning clear;
Grammar is learned inductively (i.e., by repeated exposure to language in use, not through rules about forms);
Literary texts are read for pleasure and not analyzed grammatically;
The target language culture is also taught inductively;
The teacher must be a native speaker or have native-like proficiency in the target language.
Reform Movement
This movement arose in 1886 around the same period that the Direct Method because popularized and advocated principles for language teaching based in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) – a transcription system designed to represent the sounds of any language; focused on pronunciation and oral skills, which proponents felt had been ignored in the Grammar-Translation Approach.
Notable proponents of this approach: Scholars who established the International Phonetic Association including Henry Sweet, Wilhelm Vietor, and Paul Passy
Key elements (Kelly, 1969):
The spoken form of a language is primary and should be taught first;
The findings of phonetics should be applied to language teaching;
Language teachers must have solid training in phonetics;
Learners should be given basic phonetic training to establish good speech habits;
Reading Approach
This approach focused on students being able to read in the target language. This approach was popularized in the early decades of the twentieth century after endorsement by the Modern Language Association of America based on the Coleman Report (Coleman, 1929) and remained influential in North America through the late 1930s and early 1940s.
Notable proponents of this approach: Michael West (1941) and influence on language educators in North America
Key elements:
only grammar useful for reading comprehension is taught;
vocabulary is controlled at first (based on frequency and usefulness) and then expanded;
translation is once more a respectable classroom activity;
reading comprehension is the only language skill emphasized;
the teacher does not need to have good oral proficiency in the target language;
the student’s native language is used to present reading material, discuss it, and check understanding
Audio-Lingual Approach
This approach drew on both the Reform Movement and the Direct Method, but added features from structural linguistics (e.g., concepts like phonemes, morphemes, and larger syntactic structures; Bloomfield, 1993) and behavioral psychology (e.g., that learning is based on getting learners to repeat verbal or non-verbal behaviors; Skinner, 1957). It was developed during World World II out of the need for the U.S. military to quickly and efficiently teach members of the armed forces how to speak and understand foreign languages and became dominant in the U.S. from the late 1940s to the 1960s.
Notable proponents of this approach: The U.S. government, which hired linguists to help teach languages and develop learning materials for the military, and language educators in the U.S.
Key elements:
lessons begin with dialogues;
mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language learning is habit formation;
grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively (through planned exposure);
skills are sequenced; first, listening and speaking are taught; reading and writing are postponed;
accurate pronunciation is stressed from the beginning;
vocabulary is severely controlled and limited in the initial stages;
a great effort is made to prevent learner errors;
language is often manipulated without regard to meaning or context;
the teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabulary, and other aspects of the language that they are teaching, since learning activities and materials are carefully controlled.
Oral-Situational Approach
This approach arose in Britain from the same historical situations that led to the development of the Audio-Lingual Approach in the U.S. (Eckersley, 1955), but also as a reaction to the lack of emphasis on listening and speaking skills in the Reading Approach (Howatt, 2004). Parts of this approach drew on the the Reform Movement and Direct Approach but added features from Firthian Linguistics (Firth, 1957) and from the collective knowledge of the emerging professional field of language pedagogy (e.g., organizing the teaching of language structures around situations such as “at the restaurant”). This approach became the dominant form of teaching in Britain from the late 1940s to the 1960s.
Notable proponent of this approach: Language educators in Britain
Key elements:
the spoken language is primary;
all language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form (reading and writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical forms has been established;
only the target language should be used in the classroom;
efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented;
grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex;
new items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g., “at the bank”, “at the pharmacy”, etc.)
Cognitive Approach
The Cognitive Approach arose as a reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audio-Lingual approach, influenced by Chomskyian linguistics (the view that language acquisition is the learning of a system of infinitely recursive rules based on meaningful exposure and rule formation (Chomsky, 1959 & 1965) and cognitive psychology (the view that people learn complex systems like language through the acquisition of patterns and rules that they can extend to new circumstances rather than through habit formation (Neisser, 1967).
Key elements:
language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation;
instruction is often individualized and learners are responsible for their own learning;
grammar must be taught, but it can be taught deductively (rules first, practice later) and/or inductively (learned implicitly);
pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic and unattainable;
reading and writing are as important as listening and speaking;
vocabulary learning is again stressed, especially at intermediate and advanced levels;e
errors are viewed as inevitable and should be used constructively for enhancing the learning process (for feedback and correction);
the teacher is expected to have a good general proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to analyze the target language.
Affective-Humanistic Approach
The Affective-Humanistic Approach is an approach that developed as a reaction to the lack of affective considerations in the Audio-Lingual and Cognitive Approach (Curran, 1976; Moskowitz, 1978). It focuses on the social climate of the classroom and the development of positive relationships between the teachers and learners and argues that language learning is a social and personal learning process.
Key elements:
respect for individuals (students and teachers) and for their feelings is emphasized;
communication that is personally meaningful to the learner is given priority;
instruction involves extensive work in pairs and small groups;
the class atmosphere is viewed as more important than the materials or the methods;
peer support and interaction are viewed as necessary for learning;
learning a second or foreign language is viewed as a self-realization process;
the teacher is a counselor or facilitator rather than the ultimate source of knowledge.
the teacher should be proficient in the target language and in the students’ native language since translation may be used heavily in the initial stages to help students feel at ease; and then later, is gradually phased out.
Comprehension-Based Approach
The Comprehension-Based Approach developed based on accrued research in first language (L1) acquisition that viewed second language (L2) learning as similar to L1 acquisition, and thus extended exposure and comprehension (i.e. listening and understanding) must precede production (i.e., speaking).
Notable proponent of this approach: Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach (1983)
Key elements:
listening and comprehension is very important and is the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time, given the right conditions;
learners should begin with a “silent period” by listening to meaningful speech and by responding non-verbally in meaningful ways before they produce language themselves;
learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; such delayed oral production results in better pronunciation than if the learner is expected to speak immediately;
learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step beyond their level of proficiency;
rule learning may help learners monitor (or become aware of) what they do, but it will not aid their acquisition or spontaneous use of the target language;
error correction is seen as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive; what is important is that the learners can understand and can make themselves understood;
if the teacher is not a native (or near-native) speaker, appropriate audio-visual materials must be available online in the classroom or lab to provide the appropriate input for the learners.
