W1- Beginnings and foundations of development Flashcards
What is parental acceptance-rejection theory?
A socialisation theory that aims to understand how major psychological and environmental conditions can predict how accepting or rejecting caregivers are towards their children. Focuses on expressions, impact and origins of love from caregivers.
What are the effects of caregiver acceptance?
It leads to children being more likely to have high self-esteem, independence, and emotional stability. This has implications for forming healthier relationships.
What are the four universal behaviours that indicate acceptance and rejection?
warmth/affection (coldness)
hostility/aggression
indifference/neglect
undifferentiated rejection
What is development?
“(…) continuities and changes in a person’s physical self, feelings and patterns of thinking. Changes include growth, mastery, gains and losses.”
What is a developmental theory?
“A set of statements that are an orderly, integrated description, explanation and prediction of human behaviour in various developmental domains”
What is the approved set of strategies used to test a theory?
Hypothesising about relationships between concepts
observing patterns in data
determining how well patterns in data align with hypotheses
explaining the patterns in the data and relating to the theory being tested or a new theory
What are the qualities of a good theory?
Internally consistent- makes logical sense
Provide meaningful explanations
Open to scientific evaluation
Stimulate new thinking and research
Guide those who this information would benefit in their professional or personal lives
What are the six dimensions of national cross-cultural communication suggested by Hofstede’s research to determine organisation structure and employee motivations across cultures?
Power distance index (PDI)- to what degree do org members prefer autocratic, superior-subordinate relationships
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI)- degree to which org members avoid stress-creating situations in work relationships
Individualism vs collectivism (IDV)- integration with immediate family vs extended families and others
Masculinity vs femininity (MAS)- effect of different gender roles on values and attitudes and therefore carrying out of tasks and work relationships
Long-term orientation vs short-term orientation (LTO)- valuing adaptation and pragmatic problem solving vs valuing respect for traditions and fulfilling social obligations
Indulgence vs restraint (IND)- to what extent simple joys are allowed to be fulfilled
What is developmental psychology?
“The study of growth, change and stability across the lifespan”
biological processes, genetic endowment, cognitive development, physical growth, personality and social development
What are the three domains of development?
physical- biological changes
cognitive- thinking, language, memory
psychosocial- emotions, interpersonal relationships
What is Baltes’ model of normative and non-normative development?
Emphasises that biological and environmental factors interact to create normative age-graded, normative history-graded, and non-normative influences on development.
Also emphasises how development varies across time as the interactions between environmental and biological factors vary over time.
What is the link between physical and cognitive development?
Physical development of the brain is associated with cognitive development. Different areas of the brain develop on different timelines as do different aspects of cognitive development
What factors are associated with developmental trajectories varying between individuals?
Culture, biological processes, socioenvironmental factors, non-normative life events (eg. brain injury, born pre-term)
Describe Bronfenbrenner’s ecological settings for developmental change
It is a developmental framework which emphasises that children are actively involved in their development and significantly influenced by their cultural environment and the way the four contextual levels interact.
What are the four contextual levels in the ecological settings theory?
microsystem- the patterns of interaction and individual experiences
mesosystem- the individual’s connections and relationships
exosystem- the settings/situations these interactions take place in
macrosystem- the cultural factors of the society including values and beliefs which forms the framework for an individual’s life and influences the the three inner levels.
What is the importance of time in the ecological settings theory?
The environment, or chronosystem, is always changing over time and therefore affecting an individuals relationship with the environment and the four contextual levels, thus affecting development.
What are key themes in development?
Continuity within change- how certain qualities, behaviours and skills are continuous despite change in related qualities, behaviours and skills.
Lifelong growth- the potential for emotional, cognitive, and physical growth
Changing vantage points- the effect of developmental experiences on one’s perspectives
Developmental diversity- factors associated with individual differences in developmental trajectories
What is a cross-sectional study?
participants of different ages at one point in time
What is a longitudinal study?
same individuals observed at different points in time
what is a naturalistic study?
observe participants in naturally occurring situations/circumstances
what is an experimental study?
circumstances carefully controlled
what is correlational study?
observing two behaviours/qualities and statistically determining how likely they are to occur/vary together
what is a survey?
brief questionnaire asking many participants about their beliefs or behaviours
what is an interview?
face-to-face conversation with partcipant
what is a case study?
in-depth investigation of just one individual/small no. of individuals
what is an ethnography?
aims to uncover a culture’s values and social processes through observation and field notes
what variables change between different research methods?
timeframe
control
sample sizes
what is ethics?
“codified set of values or principles that guide the conduct of specific subsets of people”
eg APS code of ethics for psychologists in Australia
What are the major similarities between codes of ethics for psychologists?
protection of participants from harm
maintaining privacy
if deception is used must be justified and not cause harm
informed consent
what are the main ways that different developmental theories vary?
The extent to which development reflects maturation (nature) vs experience (nurture)
Continuous process vs discrete series stages
Whether individual takes active or passive role
Is it focused on broad or narrow aspect of development
What are the three psychodynamic theories?
Freudian theory
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Mahler’s phases of development
How are psychodynamic theories used today?
To describe formation of attachments, development of autonomy and self-control in infancy and toddlerhood, and development of intimate relationships during adolescence anda adulthood
Describe Freudian theory
series of stages
focus on first six years of childhood
three main components of personality:
id (unconscious, seeking immediate unrestrained pleasure)
ego (rational and conscious, seeks satisfaction within constraints of superego)
superego (moral and ethical, conscience, restricts satisfaction of desires)
personality and behaviour determined by balancing biological drives and social expectations
based on retrospective accounts of upperclass women in Vienna
considered outdated bu does influence understanding of personality development, neuropsych, attachment theory and psychopathology
Describe Erikson’s psychosocial theory
discrete stages- each have conflicts needing to be resolved
development driven by need to become integrated into social and cultural environment
personality and sense of self develop continuously as interactions between internal psychological factors and external social factors change- changes in these interactions influenced by biological development
three main influences on developmental changes- biological/physical strengths and limitations, unique life circumstances and developmental history, and social, cultural and historical factors
foundation of research today on crises faced at different life periods
development is reversible
What are the three behavioural and social cognitive learning theories?
Pavlov’s classical conditioning
Skinner’s operant conditioning
Bandura’s social learning theory
What are applications of behavioural social cognitive learning theories today?
Behavioural modification techniques and CBT approaches
ACT- acceptance commitment therapy- based on learning theories
Describe Pavlov’s classical conditioning
The process of associating a neutral stimulus with stimulus already associated with a response such that the neutral stimulus will lead to that response automatically- forming a reflex
Describe Skinner’s operant conditioning
Reinforcement of a behaviour leads to carrying out the behaviour more frequently
positive reinforcement- rewarding stimulus increases response
negative reinforcement- removal of undesirable stimulus increases response
punishment- adding unpleasant stimulus or removing pleasurable one to weaken or suppress response
What are four main cognitive development theories?
Piaget’s cognitive theory
Neo-Piagetian approaches
Information-processing theory
Moral development theories
What are main applications of cognitive development theories?
fostering infant cognitive development and critical thinking in adolescence
explaining development of sensorimotor, symbolic thought, language, and problem solving
examine changes in crystallised (learned) and fluid intelligence (processing information)
Describe Piaget’s cognitive theory
discrete stages necessary in order to progress to next stage- progress through direct learning, social transmission, and maturation
active role of children
sensorimotor- coordination of sensory and motor activity, developing object permanence, and learning about world using senses
preoperational (2-7)- language and symbolic representation, egocentric worldview, make-believe play, lack of logic in thinking
concrete operational (7-11)- logical thinking to solve concrete problems, no abstract thinking yet, objects organised into hierarchies, classes and subclasses
formal operational (11-adulthood)- abstract, systematic thinking, able to solve abstract problems using systematic solutions, able to deduce testable inferences
assimilation- new problems solved using existing schemes
accomodation- altering of existing schemes to solve new problems
Describe information-processing model
Mind likened to computer in which there are distinct parts contributing to thinking in a specific order- taking in info through senses, coded, transformed, and organised, held briefly in sensory register/memory, some info passed on to short-term memory and is analysed for patterns (attention and perception at play), information given particular attention tranferred to STM, then info either forgotten or remains through rehearsal and can be transferred to long-term memory (LTM) through elaboration and organisation
What are the two contextual development theories?
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems theory
Bygotsky’s sociocultural theory
What are applications of contextual development theories?
understanding how context affects individual development
understanding how different factors influence issues
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development- development of problem solving and culturaly specific nature
ethological theory- understanding temperament, emotion and attachment
Describe Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
Interactions between individuals and representatives of the culture (eg teachers and parents) lead to development of higher mental functions
developmental tasks occur within sone of proximal development- range of tasks not achieveable for the child without scaffolding- support and assistance from adults and peers- gradually withdrawn to encourage independence and growth
ZPD increases as individual improves with assistance
What are the five adulthood and lifespan development theories?
Vaillant’s adaptive mechanism and Levinson’s seasons of adult lives which are both normative-crisis approaches of adult development- distinct stages and lifelong
Timing of events model
Dynamic systems perspective
Developmental psychopathology framework
Describe Valiant’s sadaptive mechanism approach
based on longitudinal research- male participants
development lifelong process- influenced by relationships and adaptive mechanisms/coping styles
mature coping styles- sublimation (redirecting anxiety and unacceptable impulses to acceptable goals), altruism- sign of healthy brain and long-term loving relationships
Describe Levinson’s seasons of adult lives
Biolographical studies of middle aged men
early adulthood
middle adulthood
late adulthood
stages defined by social relationships and desires, values, commitment, energy, and skills invested in them
Describe timing of events model
life events markers of developmental change
Describe Dynamic system perspective
children’s development is consistent but variable
acknowledges how dynamic development is
understanding individual differences
Describe developmental psychopathology framework
Understanding normative development in order to understand non-normative development
What are the benefits of having different theories?
help systematically organise ideas
stimulate new thinking, guide understanding and professional practice
together can complement one another and create a more holistic understanding- no complete explanation alone
What are the three types of gene abnormalities?
abnormal chromosomes
abnormal genes
multifactorial
What is heritability?
estimate of how much genes vs environment contribute to differences in a particular trait within a specific population
genetic influence vs how much environment allows genes to be expressed
0-100- higher means greater genetic influence
What are four study methods used to study heredity?
Twin studies- monozygotic and dizygotic
Adoption studies- are behaviours and traits more similar to biological or adoptive family
Twin adoption studies- identical twins raised by two different adopted families- most effective for measuring heritability
Linkage and association studies- looking at polymorphisms, look at co-inheritance in linkage study or compare frequency b/w populations in association studyi
What is polymorphism?
DNA segment that acts as a genetic marker for other genes that they are always inherited together with in predictable pattern
What is epigenesis?
The theory that the genetic expression involved in development is constantly being influenced by the environment.
What is reaction range?
The idea that genes do still have control over development by creating a restricted range across which environmental influence can take place. Eg. certain genetically determined height range but environmental influence determines exact height within that range.
What are the stages of prenatal development?
Germinal 1-2 weeks: zygote divides, blastocyst forms and implants in uterus, formation of amnion, placenta and umbilical cord
Embryonic 3-4 weeks: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm form. Neural tube develope, neurons produced, heart starts beating, ribs, muscles and digestive tract form
5-8 weeks: arms and legs, finger and toes, placenta and umbilical cord function, dugestive system develops, liver produces blood cells, embryo respond to touch
Fetal 9-12 weeks: genitals form and release sex hormones, fingernails toenails taste buds develop, audible heartbeat
Second trimester 13-24 weeks: movement felt with fetus kicking, turning, hiccups, sucking thumb, breathing amniotic fluid, respond to sound, vernix and lanugo develop on skin
Third trimester 25-38 weeks: fully developed lungs, 2/3 of birth weight gained, rapid brain development, sleep-wake cycle same as newborn
What is canalisation?
The tendency of genes to strongly favour a certain phenotypic outcome despite environmental influences
What is plasticity?
critical periods in development during which environment significantly influences development
What are risk factors?
Factors increasing chance of medical problems for child later on
