vuxentid och åldrande Flashcards
Describe three of the four issues addressed by the lifespan perspective.
The lifespan perspective addresses four issues related to development during the lifespan. Below will be described three of those four issues, namely multidirectionality, plasticity and historical context.
- Multidirectionality can be described as development involving both gains and losses. As a human develops she will experience gains in some areas and experience losses in other areas, an example to clarify this can be the potential gain of a greater vocabulary and the loss of reaction time.
- Plasticity can be described as that human capacity and skills can change over the lifespan, it is possible to learn new things, even in old age, though the plasticity is shown to be greater in childhood. An example to state plasticity can be the fact that it’s possible to learn a new language in old age, even though it’s much easier in childhood.
- Historical context can be described as that each of us develop within our historical context, determined by for example the culture and any historical events such as pandemics. An example to clarify how the historical context is related to development can be people being alive during the covid pandemic might be affected by the world being in isolation. Above is described the three of four issues addressed by the lifetime perspective.
Define primary, secondary, and tertiary aging. Give an example of each.
When talking about aging, it’s important to state that aging is not a single process, instead it consists of at least three processes; primary aging, secondary aging and tertiary aging.
- The term primary aging refers to the aging that happens to everybody (reaching old age) and is therefore universal. Changes that are associated with primary aging are not related to diseases or environmental influence. An example of primary aging is women getting menopause.
- The term secondary aging refers to changes that do not necessarily happen to all (reaching old age). Secondary aging can be related to diseases, changes caused by environmental influences or lifestyle. An example of secondary aging is the severe memory loss and personality change due to Alzheimer’s disease.
- The term tertiary aging refers to a state that involves rapid losses and happens before death. Tertiary aging does not seem to happen to everybody, and how long before death tertiary aging is happening can vary from shortly before death to one year before death. An example of tertiary aging is what is called terminal drop. Terminal drop is a marked decline in intellectual abilities.
Compare and contrast three ways of conceptualizing “age.”
To determine how old an individual is, one can use different conceptualizations of age. Three of these conceptualizations are chronological age, biological age and sociocultural age. Below will be stated for the similarities and the differences between these.
To compare chronological age with biological age, these two ways both don’t take into account the social surroundings or the context the individual is located in. Further both chronological age and biological age say little itself about the behavior of the individual. To compare biological age with sociocultural age, they both …
These use chronological age as a basis of explanation. There is also some overlap considering the biological aspect - for example the development of the prefrontal lobe lays a ground for what we consider a grown up.
To contrast biological and chronological age, one can have a high chronological age (meaning have lived many years) but still have good vital organs which is an indicator of lower biological age. To contrast biological age with sociocultural age, one can have a high sociocultural age (for example have become retired) but have a young biological age, with little impact on the vital organs.
Compare and contrast age-graded influences with history-graded influences.
Age-graded influences and history age-graded influences are two terms that describe the interaction experiences and events have with the developmental change an individual undergoes during the life-span.
Age graded = experiences caused by biographical, psychological and sociocultural forces, biololigal could be puberty, sociocultural could be age where we normally get married
History graded = most people in a specific culture experience - at the same time, biological could be epidemics, psychosocial could be particular stereotypes
sociocultural could be changing attitudes toward sexuality
gives a generation its unique identity - gen z
- To compare the two terms, both of them involve an experience of some sort, and this experience is related to a developmental change or developmental indicator. Further, this event or experience can be either biological, psychological or sociocultural for both history-graded and age-graded influences.
- To contrast them, history-graded influences are related to experiences that are specific to a culture at a specific time. While age-graded influences are not time specific in the same sense. To illustrate this contrast most of the population in Sweden that lived during the covid pandemic might have different views on safety regarding infection, which is a history-graded influence.
Compare and contrast cross-sectional designs, longitudinal designs, and sequential designs.
Different study-designs allow for different types of conclusion. Below will be held for some comparisons and some contrasts between the three study designs: cross-sectional designs, longitudinal designs and sequential designs.
Comparisons:
* Cross sectional allow for test age differences - Sequential also allows for testing age differences (since it, consists of cross sectional as well as longitudinal)
* In longitudinal as well as cross sectional cohort effects can be confounding
* Since both longitudinal and sequential designs are rather expensive the sample tends to be small (are great examples of otherwise though) - which can lead to poor generalisability.
* Since both longitudinal and sequential designs are measured over time there is a risk for drop out which can leave a positivity effect as a result.
Contrasts:
* Cross sectional and longitudinal - the results in longitudinal samples are based on the the same participant while the results in cross sectional are based on different participants
* In contrast to both cross sectional and longitudinal studies – a strength that sequential designs have is that the design allow for better testing for cohort effects, since more than one cohort is being measured over time
Name and define the four ways researchers describe length of life
There are four ways in which researchers describe length of life, these are; average longevity, maximum longevity, active life expectancy and dependent life expectancy.
- The term average longevity can be described as the average life expectancy of an individual, which is determined by at what age half of the individuals born in a certain year will have died. The average longevity can be affected by genetic factors, environmental factors, gender and ethnicity, which all interact with each other. The average longevity is increasing, due to medical technology and improvements,
- The term maximum longevity can be described as the oldest age that is possible for an individual of a certain species. A common view on maximum longevity for humans is 120 years of age, since it´s believed that it’s the longest our vital organs can function.
- The term active life expectancy refers to the age where one can live healthy and without support from others to be capable of function in daily tasks (such as brushing teeth or eating, cleaning, etc).
- And the term dependent life expectancy refers to the age the individual reaches, where the years when he or she can not function independently are taken into account. The individual is required to seek help from others to manage daily tasks.
Provide four reasons why people are living longer today than 100 years ago
People are living longer today than 100 years ago, below will be accounted for four possible reasons.
- The first reason is better living conditions. Living in poverty has shown to shorten the longevity, this could be due to for example reduced access to services and medical care. Since the poverty in the world has been reduced in the past 100 years, this might be one reason.
- The second reason might be better health care. Due to technological medical progress, we have better health care now in comparison with 100 years ago, this leading to us being able to save more lives.
- The third reason might be better education. It is shown that education is correlated with higher socioeconomic status which in turn is associated with longer living. Further education about what makes us live longer helps us live longer. As the education level among the population is rising, this could be a potential reason for why we live longer today than for 100 years ago.
- The fourth reason for why we live longer today is sanitation. The implementation of sanitation practices and public health measures, such as clean water supplies, proper sewage disposal, and hygiene education, has significantly reduced the spread of infectious diseases. Access to clean water and improved sanitation has played a crucial role in decreasing mortality rates from diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery
- War
War affect the life expectancy, väpnade konflikter ökar dödligheten, since there is less väpnade konflikter i världen
What is the Hayflick limit? Have humans reached it or not? Defend your response.
What the Hayflick limit is and if it is reached among humans or not is a big question. Cells cultivated in laboratory dishes have a finite lifespan, undergoing a set number of divisions before reaching the end of their life cycle. This limit, known as the Hayflick limit, after Leonard Hayflick, who discovered it. The number of divisions a cell can undergo decreases with the age of the organism from which it originates. For instance, cells derived from human fetal tissue can typically divide 40 to 60 times, while those from adult humans can divide only around 20 times. Interestingly, the Hayflick limit imposes a maximum threshold on cell divisions, independent of other factors like telomere damage.
It’s not entirely sure yet if there is a Hayflick limit among humans, or if we reached it yet. One argument for why humans have reached the hayflick limit is simply that we die, even though we die at different ages and due to different reasons, death still seems inevitable to us.
Describe one of the biological theories of aging. Review the evidence supporting the theory.
We still don’t have a complete answer to why the normative changes happen, though, some biological theories aim to explain this, the metabolic theories are just one of many. The metabolic theories build upon the idea that the rate of the individual’s metabolism is associated with how long that individual will live.
- There is some support for the way hormones are produced and used that indicate that decrease in calorie intake could lead to longer lives, which some research has been able to support when calories are significantly reduced.
- Although the criticism of this theory relates to the research that indicates that there are other aspects of the way we eat that impact longevity, for example at what time at the day we eat.
- Further, other aspects such as the loss of life quality that might occur when reducing calorie intake to such levels are not taken into account in this theory. The decrease in energy one would get out of such a restricted diet could result in missing out on social events.
What characterizes the transition to adulthood? What are some cultural differences in the transition?
What characterizes the transition from childhood to adulthood is somewhat debated and unclear, and differs from culture to culture. However, the most characteristic criterias for attending adulthood is accepting responsibility for oneself, making independent decisions and becoming financially independent. Further parenthood, being able to self-regulate and to be able to see the consequences of one’s decisions is often associated with adulthood.
Different cultures have different criterias or rites for passing onto adulthood, an example of this is the bar mitzvah or confirmation, in different cultures we also associate different roles with adulthood such as building an intimate pair, being a parent and having a full time occupation. Further, in different cultures we associate different responsibilities with adulthood, such as in some cultures being an adult is associated with going into military services, or being able to financially support your family.
What is “emerging” adulthood? Why does Arnett argue for this idea? What evidence suggests that he is correct? What evidence suggests that he is wrong?
Arnettes idea of emerging adulthood is a period in development that occurs after adolescence and before adulthood. Arnett argues that this developmental period is constituted by longer periods of education and training, greater tolerance toward sex and cohabitation, later emerging to marriage and parenthood. And a subjective idea of one self as no longer an adolescent but also not fully an adult yet. Arnett argues that this developmental period occurs mostly in industrialized countries or societies. According to Arnett, this period is based on 5 distinct features, namely age identity explorations, age of instability, self-focused age and age of feeling in-between and age of possibilities.
Arnett argues that it is a missing concept that emerging adulthood fills. The behavior of a person in their late adolescence differs too little from the behavior of an adolescent, the term young adulthood has been too broadly used, and is therefore unspecific, and the same goes for the term youths. Therefore Arnett argues that the term emerging adulthood is needed to describe this developmental period.
According to Cote, Arnett’s theory has some lacking evidence. For example, Arnett’s theory is based on a sample of around 300 nonrandom interviews. Arnett’s theory is not falsifiable, which makes it hard to test, and hard to even call a theory (since a theory has to be falsifiable). Arnett bases his theory upon 5 features, but these 5 features are not conceptualized in a concrete way. Further arnett doesn’t clarify what it is that is developing at this time period. Arnett’s theory is based on a too small sample, with too few measuring points and not controlling for cohorts effect, to be able to state that this is a new development period.
Describe changes or age-related differences across adulthood in three of the five sensory systems. What changes/ARD are considered primary and what changes are secondary aging? What creates these changes?
Our sensory systems such as vision, audition and olfaction can undergo changes and differences across adulthood, below will be stated for a number of these changes, if they are primary or secondary and what creates them.
Some primary aging changes that vision undergoes is for example
* a decreased amount of light passing through the eye, which makes us see worse in the dark. Regeneration of the receptor rhodopsin is decreasing with age, which makes it harder to see in weak light circumstances. Rhodopsin can be found in the light-sensitive cells in the retina and rods of the eye.
* Another primary age change that happens to the vision is presbyopia, which is caused by the muscles around the lens getting stiffer, which leads to lens decreases in ability to adjust and focus. This increases the time it takes for our eyes to shift focus from visual objects near us, to visual objects far from us.
* Some other primary changes that the vision undergoes is the eyes getting fryer, vitreous detachments (or floaters) appear. We become more sensitive to glare (since the light gets less focused when it hits the retina. We also get a more yellow lens, which leads to poorer color discrimination. Also reduced functioning of the cones → “washed out” colors (esp. blue). Our adaptation gets worse (takes longer time to adjust from a dark room to a bright) → the need for ambient light increases. Loss of contrast sensitivity and peripheral vision also occurs.
Some secondary age changes that can occur are in vision:
* Cataracts = opaque spots develop on the lens. can be treated with laser → remove the original lens, get a corrective lens. The yellowing of the lens is more profound than in normative aging.
* Glaucoma = fluid in the eye doesn’t drain properly → high pressure. Can cause internal damage, progressive loss of vision. Usually treated with eye drops.
* AMD = progressive and irreversible destruction of receptors → cant see details (reading, watching television). Wet form of AMD treated with injection of drugs that stops abnormal growth of blood vessels, dry form of AMD has no treatment
* Diabetic retinopathy = Age related retinal disease as a by-product of diabetes. Takes time to develop, so it is more common when diabetes has developed early in life. Blood vessels are damaged due to diabetes. Degradation of the retina which occasionally leads to blindness.
When it comes to audition, a primary change is
* Presbycusis = reduced sensitivity to (especially) high-pitched tones. Can also result in difficulty hearing the origin of sounds and discriminating speech. Can result from 4 changes in the inner ear.
Sensory - degeneration of receptor cells (called cilia) of auditory nerve (permanent). Knowing cause is important, bcs of differentiation in treatment and other aspects of hearing. Has little effect on other hearing abilities
Neural - affects the ability to understand speech, due to atrophy of the auditory nerve cells
Metabolic - severe loss of sensitivity to all pitches, due to atrophy of stria vascularis
Mechanical - loss of sensitivity to all pitches, but most for high pitches, due to thickening of cochlea basular membrane.
and some secondary changes in audition are
* Amplification of presbycusis
There is more men that gets this in a earlier age, than women, can be due to men working in jobs that are more exposed to loud sounds (as in factories)
* Ossification of the middle-ear bones
More common in late adulthood
the bones gets stiff and is not moving →no sound waves are conducted → no sound can be detected by the auditory nerve
* Tinnitus
More common in late adulthood
Means hearing without an external source
Due to more severe damage to cilia → cilia gets bend and touch the wall
Some cases of tinnitus can be treated
Some primary changes that olfaction undergo with age are
* Ability to detect odors remains fairly intact until 60s, when it begins to decline, but there are wide variations across people and types of odors
* Normal aging include decrease in detect odor
And some Secondary changes in olfaction are
* Cumulative damage to olfactory epithelium (degrades regeneration)
* Reduction in production of mucus
* Toxins and medications
* Abnormal aging can include faster decrease of detecting odor (such as people with Alzheimers been shown to only identify 60%)
What are individual and social consequences of aging sensory systems?
vision
* some universal changes can be corrected easily through glasses, can also ease the changes with floodlights, adjusting lighting to reduce glare, reduce tripping hazards
* change the relation between certain personality traits and emotions
e.g. relationship between extraversion and positive emotions is stronger in people with few or no impairments than in people with impairments
* Mobility gets reduced, particularly at night (dark) - concerns about falls, driving in the dark, etc - which can limit social activities
* Can get problem with reading
* Can become dependent on others
Audition
* Hearing play a major role in communication - can therefor have effect of people’s quality of life
* Dalton and colleagues (2003) found that people with moderate to severe hearing loss were significantly more likely to have functional impairments with tasks in daily life (e.g., shopping).
* more likely to have decreased cognitive functioning. Clearly, significant hearing impairment can result in decreased quality of life
- Loss of hearing in later life can also cause numerous adverse emotional reactions, such as loss of independence, social isolation, irritation, paranoia, and depression
- Hearing loss may not directly affect older adults’ self-concept or emotions, but it may negatively affect how they feel about interpersonal communication, especially between couples. Moreover, over 11% of adults with hearing loss report having experienced moderate to severe depression, double the rate of adults without hearing loss
- Hearing loss have also been associated with cognition loss
touch
* Losing bodily sensations can have major implications; loss of sexual sensitivity and changes in the ability to regulate one’s body temperature affect the quality of life. How a person views these changes is critical for maintaining self-esteem
* Because fear of falling has a real basis, it is important that concerns not be taken lightly (Granacher, Muehlbauer, & Gruber, 2012).
* Balance - fear and actual falling, other types of damage due to reduced temperature sensitivity - such as burns
* Reduced sense pain - could lead to undetected of injuries
smell
* The major psychological consequences of changes in smell concern eating, safety, and pleasurable experiences. Odors play an important role in enjoying food and protecting us from harm.
* Socially, decreases in our ability to detect unpleasant odors may lead to embarrassing situations in which we are unaware that we have body odors or need to brush our teeth.
Social interactions could suffer as a result of these problems.
Smells also play a key role in remembering life experiences from the past.
taste
* The influence of disease and medication, combined with the psycho-social aspects of eating, may underlie older adults’ complaints about boring food, that in turn may underlie increased risk of malnutrition
* We are much more likely to eat a balanced diet and to enjoy our food when we feel well enough to cook, when we do not eat alone, and when we get a whiff of the enticing aromas from the kitchen. Speaking of enticing aromas…
Describe two changes or age-related differences in the physical structure of the brain, across adulthood. Are these changes/ARD considered primary or secondary aging?
White matter decrease
* White matter = neurons that are covered with myelin - serve to transmit information from one part cerebral cortex to another part of cerebral cortex, or from cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain
* This white matter both thinning and shrinking in volume and density with age
* This white matter decrease is a primary change
Many other parts of the brain decrease in size and shrink
* For example prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum
* Changes in prefrontal cortex and amygdala may be related to a decrease in processing of negative emotional information (and increase in positive emotions)
* Structures thats involved in automatic processing such as amygdala show less decrease than prefrontal cortex which is involved in more reflective processing
* This is a primary change
White matter hyperintensities
* observation of high signal intensity or a bright spotty appearance on images, which indicate brain pathologies such as neural atrophy. Caused by cerebrovascular events or diseases
* This is a secondary change
Describe two changes or age-related differences in the biochemical processes of the brain across adulthood. Are these changes/ARD considered primary or secondary aging?
Two age-related differences in biochemical processes that occur in the brain across adulthood is the decline of dopamine and decline in serotonin.
- Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is associated with both higher levels of cognitive functioning and emotion, pleasure and pain. Decline in dopamine levels as we age are related to decline in memory, and the amount of information that one can hold at the same time.
*Serotonin is involved in several types of brain processes such as memory, mood, appetite and sleep. Decline in these two neurotransmitters are considered primary aging, but can also have a more rapid decline that is secondary aging.
Describe two changes or age-related differences in the function of the brain across adulthood. Are these changes/ARD considered primary or secondary aging?
Processing speed declines
due to slower firing neurons
Decline plasticity
our ability to adapt and make new neural connections
primary change - but much heterogeneity
Less efficient processing
due to less blood flow
positivity effect
Change in prefrontal cortex and amygdala may be related to a decrease in processing of negative emotional information and an increase in processing positive information
adults tend to be able to regulate their emotions better than younger adults
Brain structures that’s involved in processing automatic information (eg amygdala) show less age-related deterioration
While brain structures that’s involved in more reflective processing (eg prefrontal cortex) show more severe deterioration
older adults tend to rely more on automatic processes.
Describe two reasons why changes in the brain are described as “heterogenous” across people.
Rates of decline differs when it comes to when, how much and how quickly
some aspects that påverkar are:
levnadsförhållanden - such as eat better, responsible weight, and how much we sleep
education has also shown to play a role when it comes to decline in brain function - this die to both cognitive challenge, and that you learn about these things - also correlation between higher education and higher living standards (due to higher income and möjlighet att träna
stress has also shown to play role when it comes to rates of decline
stress has shown to damage our cardiovascular system, our hippocampal neurons
even though small amount of stress seem to improve our memory for a short period of time → since or cortisol levels rise
Describe one of the four information-processing models currently used to link changes/ARD in older adults’ brains with changes/ARD in their cognitive functioning. What evidence is there to support the model?
Information processing changes during the course of the life-span. It has been shown that additional age-related neural activation, which especially occurs in prefrontal areas, may be adaptive as we grow older. One model that links this neural change to cognition is the HARNOLD model by Cabeza (2002).
description:
* Stands for “Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults ”
* explains reduced lateralization in prefrontal lobe activity in older adults
* reduced ability to separate cognitive processing in different parts of prefrontal cortex
* model suggests that purpose of reduced lateralization lies within nature, older adults are recruiting additional neural units, and using then to increase attentional resources, processing speed or inhibitory control
support:
Several studies show that the brain creates and uses reserve abilities to lessen the impact of age-related changes in the brain.
Using the information-processing perspective, describe two changes/ARD/ in attention, two changes/ARD in processing, and two changes/ARD in memory that are tied to aging. Are these changes/ARD considered primary or secondary aging?
Two changes in attention:
- First of all: most attentional processes decline
- Inhibitory loss
Losing the capacity to inhibit the irrelevant information - Reduced ability to divide attention
We can’t divide attention, really it’s switching, For older - each task takes longer time - looks like it’s the multitasking (the more complexity). The more stressed they are - the longer it takes. - Divided attention = concerns how well people perform multiple tasks
doesn’t change that much with age - but the focus on the specific task decrease - also have more focus on other tasks (walking, balancing - instead of talking → in opposite to younger people) - Primary change
Two changes in processing:
* Processing speed
Declines with age, declining begins in the 30’s
bcs neural impulses begin to slow
- Effortful processing
- this type of processing requires effort and is a more deliberate processing
- Studies have shown that older adults show worse in tasks that require this type of processing
- but further longitudinal research is required to determine whether there is a decline or not
Two changes in memory:
* Explicit memory
Explicit memory is also known as declarative memory and is an intentional, conscious remembering of information that is learned at a specific time point, this includes episodic, semantic and autobiographical memories. Explicit memory decline with age and this is primary aging. Although, impaired memory for very recent events which are important, are a sign of secondary aging.
- Working memory
Working memory declines with age leading to less capacity, less ability to allocate capacity to more than one task and slower rates of processing. Age-related decline in spatial working memory tends to be greater than that in verbal working memory, although there is decline in both types of working memory. This change is also primary aging.
Describe the EIEIO model. Give examples (preferably your own) of each type of aid.
Memory aids or strategies can be organized into meaningful groups. Among the most useful of these classifications is Camp and colleagues’ (1993) E-I-E-I-O framework. The E-I-E-I-O framework combines two types of memory, explicit memory and implicit memory, with two types of memory aids; external aids and internal aids
E stands for explicit memory, and involves the conscious and intentional recollection of information; remembering this definition on an exam is one example.
I stands for implicit memory, and involves effortless and unconscious recollection of information such as knowing stop signs are red octagons is usually not something people need to exert effort to remember when they see one on the road.
External aids are memory aids that rely on environmental resources, such as notebooks or calendars. Internal aids are memory aids that rely on mental processes, such as imagery.
O stands for the Aha! or Oh! experience in the framework is the one that comes with suddenly remembering something.
What is the SOC model? Give an example of a memory process where every element of SOC is used—describe what is S, O, and C in this example.
The Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) theory is a psychological theory proposed by Paul Baltes and colleagues, which describes the adaptive strategies individuals employ to cope with the challenges of aging and maintain well-being as they grow older.
Key components of the SOC theory include:
1. Selective: This aspect refers to the idea that individuals selectively choose certain goals, activities, and domains in which to invest their resources and efforts. As people age, they become increasingly aware of their limited time and energy, so they prioritize activities that are most meaningful or important to them.
- Optimization: Optimization involves the deliberate effort to maximize gains and minimize losses in pursuit of selected goals. This may include allocating resources (such as time, energy, and attention) efficiently and effectively to achieve desired outcomes. Optimization strategies may involve seeking out opportunities for growth, learning, and personal development in areas of importance.
- Compensation: Compensation involves adapting to age-related changes and losses by finding alternative ways to achieve goals or maintain functioning. When faced with physical, cognitive, or social limitations, individuals may employ compensatory strategies to overcome these challenges. This could involve using assistive technologies, seeking social support, or modifying goals and expectations.
The SOC theory emphasizes that successful aging is not solely determined by chronological age, but rather by the dynamic interplay between individual characteristics, environmental factors, and adaptive strategies. By selectively focusing on valued goals, optimizing resources, and compensating for limitations, individuals can enhance their well-being and maintain a sense of control and satisfaction in later life.
Overall, the Selective Optimization with Compensation theory provides a framework for understanding how individuals adapt to the aging process by actively managing their goals, resources, and strategies to maintain a fulfilling and meaningful life.
What are the components of intelligence (“G”)? How do these components change across adulthood?
One of the components is called crystallized intelligence. This term refers to knowledge through experience and education in a particular culture
- According to research this intelligence includes breadth of knowledge and experience, understanding communications and social conventions, judgment, and reason.
- An example of crystalized intelligence is the intelligence used in TP or på spåret for example
- Crystallized knowledge tend to increase or improve with age
In contrast, the increase in crystallized intelligence (at least until late life) indicates people continue adding knowledge every day.
Another component of intelligence is called fluid intelligence which is the abilities that make you a flexible and adaptive thinker, allow you to make inferences and enable you to understand the relations among concepts.
- It includes the abilities you need to understand and respond to any situation, but especially new ones: inductive reasoning, integration, abstract thinking, and the like (Horn, 1982)
- What letter comes next in the series d f i m r x e?
- This type of intelligence tends to decline with age - research has not been able to provide the reason but it’s likely due to underlying changes in the brain occurring with age.
this type of intelligence is also more effortful which might also be a reason for the decline
What is the P-Fit model? What evidence supports it?
- Parieto-Frontal Integration
- Proposes that intelligence comes from a distributed and integrated network of neurons in the parietal and frontal areas of the brain.
- In general, P-FIT accounts for individual differences in intelligence as having their origins in individual differences in brain structure and function.
- For example, research indicates that the P-FIT predicts a type of intelligence termed fluid intelligence that includes such skills as spatial reasoning
- Results indicate support for the theory when measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence are related to brain structures (Basten, Hilger, & Fiebach, 2015; Brancucci, 2012; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016).
- It is also clear; performance on measures of specific abilities is likely related to specific combinations of brain structures (Di Domenico et al., 2015; Haier et al., 2010; Kievit et al., 2016; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016)
What is the neural efficiency hypothesis? What evidence supports it? Does this alter how we think about/study change in cognition?
- States that intelligent people process information more efficiently, showing weaker neural activations in a smaller number of areas than less intelligent people.
- Research evidence is mounting that this idea holds merit: with greater intelligence does come demonstrably increased efficiency in neural processing (e.g., Kievit et al., 2016; Langer et al., 2012; Lipp et al., 2012; Pineda-Pardo et al., 2016).
- However, how this neural efficiency develops is not yet known, nor are its developmental pathways understood.
- Instead of just looking at how different parts of the brain processes information - after this hypothesis, research has started to circuit around how different parts of the brain work together and their efficiency.
What are three forms of cognition that are thought to be post-formal operations? Evaluate the idea that they are post-formal
- type of thinking represents a qualitative change beyond formal operations (King & Kitchener, 2015; Lemieux, 2012; Sinnott, 2014)
- Postformal thought = is characterized by recognition that truth (the correct answer) may vary from situation to situation, solutions must be realistic to be reasonable, ambiguity and contradiction are the rule rather than the exception, and emotion and subjective factors usually play a role in thinking
3 types of cognitions?
- Prereflective Reasoning (Stages 1–3):
- Belief that “knowledge is gained through the word of an authority figure or through firsthand observation, rather than, for example, through the evaluation of evidence. [People who hold these assumptions] believe that what they know is absolutely correct, and that they know with complete certainty. People who hold these assumptions treat all problems as though they were well-structured” (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 39).
- Example statements typical of Stages 1–3: “I know it because I see it.” “If it’s on Fox News it must be true.”
- Quasi-Reflective Reasoning (Stages 4 and 5):
- Recognition “that knowledge—or more accurately, knowledge claims—contain elements of uncertainty, which [people who hold these assumptions] attribute to missing information or to methods of obtaining the evidence. Although they use evidence, they do not understand how evidence entails a conclusion (especially in light of the acknowledged uncertainty), and thus tend to view judgments as highly idiosyncratic” (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 40).
- Example statements typical of stages 4 and 5: “I would believe in climate change if I could see the proof; how can you be sure the scientists aren’t just making up the data?”
- Reflective Reasoning (Stages 6 and 7):
- People who hold these assumptions accept “that knowledge claims cannot be made with certainty, but [they] are not immobilized by it; rather, [they] make judgments that are ‘most reasonable’ and about which they are ‘relatively certain,’ based on their evaluation of available data. They believe they must actively construct their decisions, and that knowledge claims must be evaluated in relation to the context in which they were generated to deter mine their validity. They also readily admit their willingness to reevaluate the adequacy of their judgments as new data or new methodologies become available” (King & Kitchener, 2004, p. 40).
- Example statements typical of stages 6 and 7: “It is difficult to be certain about things in life, but you can draw your own conclusions about them based on how well an argument is put together based on the data used to support it.”
dialectics - syntanisera, känslor och logik ( dvs om något krockar med något annat så yntaniserar vi) för att dra slutsatser
reflective judgment - accepterar tvetydigheter i att inte kunna dra en absolut slutsats och tillåta viss sannolikhet att ha fel - för att kunna revidera våra slutsatser i framtiden
problem finding - hitta problem som strider mot formella operaitioner som försöker lösa problem - handlar om att hitta nya problem till lösningar smo inte har funnits tidigare.
pragmatisksa resonemang - pragmatiska och effektiva metider för problemlösning baserade på praktiska koncekvenser - erkänner komplecitet och tvetydighet i sitvationer och försöker navigera dem effektivt med hjälp av en blaning mellan pragmatiskt och logiskt överväganven
What is “wisdom”? What are the different kinds of wisdom and how are they tied to age? What variation is there by culture?
Ardelt, 2010; Baltes & Staudinger, 2000; Scheibe, Kunzmann, & Baltes, 2007) describe four characteristics of wisdom:
* Wisdom deals with important or difficult matters of life and the human condition.
* Wisdom is truly “superior” knowledge, judgment, and advice.
* Wisdom is knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, and balance that is applicable to specific situations.
* Wisdom, when used, is well intended and combines mind and virtue (character).
people who are wise are experts in the basic issues in life
Wise people know a great deal about
* how to conduct life,
* how to interpret life events, and
* what life means.
* Kunz (2007) refers to this as the strengths, knowledge, and understanding learned only by living through the earlier stages of life.
no association between age and wisdom - but it does provide the time, if used well, to create a supportive context for developing wisdom.
wise depends on → has extensive life experience with the type of problem given and has the requisite cognitive abilities and personality.
* Thus, wisdom could be related to crystallized intelligence, knowledge that builds over time and through experience (Ardelt, 2010).
culture:
younger and middle-aged Japanese adults use more wisdom-related reasoning strategies (e.g., recognition of multiple perspectives, the limits of personal knowledge, and the importance of compromise) in resolving social conflicts than younger or middle-aged Americans (Grossman et al., 2012). However, older adults in both cultures used similar wisdom-related strategies.
What is the dual process model of cognition? Describe the “dual” part – what types of cognitions are seen as falling in one or the other type?
From the first article (Peters et. al., 2007)
Human decision making is a complex phenomenon involving dual affective and deliberative processes.
Information in decision making appears to be processed using two different modes of thinking: affective/experiential and deliberative:
- The experiential mode produces thoughts and feelings in a relatively effortless and spontaneous manner. The operations of this mode are implicit, intuitive, automatic, associative, and fast. This system is based on affective (emotional) feelings. As shown in a number of studies, affect provides information about the goodness or badness of an option that might warrant further consideration and can directly motivate a behavioral tendency in choice processes. Marketers, who well understand the power of affect, typically aim their ads to evoke an experiential mode of information processing
- The deliberative mode, in contrast, is conscious, analytical, reason-based, verbal, and relatively slow. It is the deliberative mode of thinking that is more flexible and provides effortful control over more spontaneous experiential processes. Kahneman (2003) suggests that one of the functions of the deliberative system is to monitor the quality of the affective/experiential system’s information processing and its impact on behavior.
Both modes of thinking are important, and some researchers claim that good choices are most likely to emerge when affective and deliberative modes work in concert and when decision makers think as well as feel their way through judgments and decisions
What age differences are seen in how adults use dual processes? What are the implications for older adults’ cognitive functioning? How are the ways older adults process information adaptive / maladaptive for them?
Several lines of research suggest age-related declines in the controlled processes of the deliberative system.
- First, because older adults process information less quickly than younger adults do, their deliberative abilities may suffer due to less efficient processing of perceived information. Salthouse (1996) has hypothesized that the products of older adults’ early processing may be lost by the time later processing occurs and/or that later processing might not occur because early processing required so much time.
- Second, the evidence indicates age-related deficits in explicit memory
- Third, Hasher and Zacks (1988) argue that aging is associated with a decrease in the ability to inhibit false and irrelevant information.
- Fourth, there is evidence suggesting that, compared with younger adults, older adults may be less consciously aware of factors that influence their judgments and decisions (Lopatto et al., 1998), that they are less accurate in estimating absolute numeric frequencies (Mutter & Goedert, 1997), that they are more overconfident in their judgments (Crawford & Stankov, 1996; but Kovalchik, Camerer, Grether, Plott, & Allman, 2005, found less overconfidence among older adults), and that they are less able than younger adults to control the impact of automatic processing on their judgments (Hess, McGee, Woodburn, & Bolstad, 1998; Hess et al., 2000). Finally, working memory and executive functions (e.g., the control and regulation of cognition) associated with the prefrontal cortex deteriorate with normal aging (e.g., Amieva, Phillips, & Della Sala, 2003).
- If good decisions depend on liberation, such findings suggest that judgments and decisions will suffer as we age.
The results suggesting decline in deliberative processes are balanced by findings in implicit learning and memory. In implicit (as opposed to explicit) tasks, subjective awareness is not necessary. ‘‘Subjects are not directly queried; rather, they are simply asked toper forma task,and learning is inferred from task performance’’ (Willingham, 1998, p. 577). Automatic information-processing abilities such as implicit memory and learning appear to be largely spared by age (see Zacks, Hasher, & Li, 2000). For example, Salthouse et al. (1999) reviewed evidence of the lackofagedifferencesintheimplicit sequence learning of a 10-element pattern (large age differences did exist for explicit learning). In general, older adults appear to perform less well than do younger adults on tasks demanding greater deliberation (explicit tasks), but there appear to be few,if any,age differences in tasks thought to tap into more implicit processes.4 Recent meta-analyses of the aging-and-memory literature support this conclusion by showing substantially smaller age effects associated with implicit memory than with explicit memory
What is stereotype threat? How does stereotype threat affect older people’s cognitions?
Stereotype threat is an evoked fear of being judged in accordance with a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong.
For example, if you are a member of a socially stigmatized group such as Latinos or Muslims, you are vulnerable to cues in your environment that activate stereotype threat about academic ability. In turn, you may perform more poorly on a task associated with that stereotype regardless of high competence in academic settings.
Experiments by Levy showed that older people demonstrated worse (on memory tests) if they had been primed with negative attitudes about aging, than older people primed with positive attitudes about aging. (people over 60)
Describe two theoretical ideas about how middle-aged and older adults handle stereotypes of aging
How a individuals’ beliefs about their own aging is, depends on their view on their self, below will be accounted for two theoretical ideas about how middle-aged and older adults handle stereotypes of aging.
labeling theory:
This theory argues that when we confront an age related stereotype, older adults are more likely to integrate it into their self-perception (in contrast to middle aged adults).
Research on impression formation and priming of stereotypes supports this view.
resilience theory;
This theory argues that confronting a negative stereotype results in a rejection of that view in favor of a more positive self-perception.
This view comes from people’s tendency to want to distance themselves from the negative stereotype. Research shows older adults dissociate themselves from their age group when negative stereotypes become relevant to them (in contrast to middle aged adults)
- As participant age increased, participants increasingly indicated they felt, wanted to be, and believed they looked proportionally younger than their actual age.
- Younger adults wanted to be about 4% older than they actually were, and older adults wanted to be about 33% younger than they were.
- Following the priming task, older adults were the only age group to feel older regardless of whether the priming was positive or negative.
- For desired age, participants in all age groups who were in bad health reported they wanted to be a younger age after experiencing the negative priming task (but no change otherwise).
- For perceived age, all participants in poor health reported themselves as looking older after receiving the negative priming task.
- All adults reported being relatively satisfied with their aging process.
- Kotter-Grühn and Hess concluded that people’s perceptions of their own aging are not made more positive by presenting them with positive images of aging. Actually, the opposite effect occurred for younger and middle-aged adults in good health—when given positive stereotypes, those groups reported feeling older than before the priming task. Their conclusion was negative images of aging have more powerful effects than positive ones in determining self- perceptions of aging.
There is also evidence middle-aged adults are susceptible to negative age stereotypes (O’Brien & Hum mert, 2006; Weiss, in press). Middle-aged adults who identified with older adulthood showed poorer memory performance if they were told their performance would be compared with other older adults. Middle-aged adults with more youthful identities did not show differences in memory performance regardless of whether they were told they would be compared to younger or older individuals. Additionally, people who believe that aging is fixed and inevitable show poorer memory performance
Cultural differences:
For the beneficial effects of positive stereotypes on older adults’ cognitive performance. Compared to Italians who live in Milan, those who live on Sardinia hold more positive attitudes about memory aging and perform better on memory tasks (Cavallini et al., 2013). Positive aging stereotypes are also good for your health and social life. Several studies have found better health indicators in those with positive views. Positive views are also related to having more new friends later in life.
Describe two aspects of emotional intelligence. In what way are these components similar to the components of intelligence (as in IQ)? How does emotional intelligence change across adulthood?
EI is: refers to people’s ability to recognize their own and others’ emotions, to correctly identify and appropriately tell the difference between emotions and to use this information to guide their thinking and behavior.
Two aspects:
1. First, EI can be viewed as a trait that reflects a person’s self-perceived dispositions and abilities
2. Second, EI can be viewed as an ability that reflects the person’s success at processing emotional information and using it appropriately in social contexts.
Components of EI similar to components of IQ:
* cultivated and improved by intentional effort and experience
* mapped to curtain brain structures
How EI change during adulthood:
* increases with age - some research
* though there is some evidence that the specific ability to perceive others’ emotions in the work context declines late in life
Describe two age-related differences in impression formation. What do researchers suggest are behind these differences?
Impression formation is: the way we form and revise first impressions about others.
Two age related differences:
* Research has shown that older adults make impressions influenced by all the information they receive. In contrast, younger adults did not show this pattern.
* Instead, they were more concerned with making sure the new information was consistent with their initial impressions.
- Older adults are more prone to change from negative to positive information, when additional negative information arise
- They are also more prone to stick to negative information even though positive information arises.
- Meaning older adults are sticking with a more negative interpretation - to a higher degree than younger adults. → Explanation: Some researchers also suggest older adults may be more subject to a negativity bias in impression formation.
Behind these differences:
* For younger adults to form new impressions about recent information, they modified their impressions to correspond with the new information regardless of whether it was positive or negative. * Younger adults, then, make their impression based on the most recent information they have.
Younger adults may be more concerned with situational consistency of the new information presented.
* One reason may be due to the higher cognitive load it takes to use the current context.
* One reason for why older people may not switch their interpretation as fast as younger adults - is because of the high cognitive load it takes to switch.
What is the correspondence bias? What age-related differences are there in this bias? What are some conditions that affect this difference?
Correspondence bias: For many years, we have known emerging adults have a tendency to draw inferences about older people’s dispositions from behavior that can be fully explained through situational factors, called correspondence bias
age related difference:
* Primarily documented with younger adults.
* However, it may be the case that the life experience accumulated by middle-aged and older adults causes them to reach different conclusions because they have learned to consider equally both types of information in explaining why things happen the way they do = learned from life experience to consider dispositional and situational information
conditions affect the difference
* if the situation ambiguous -
* correspondence bias in older adults only occurred in negative relationship situations
* if the situation is ambiguous - then both tend to use both types of information
* older adults paradoxically also blamed the main character more (dispositional attributions) than younger groups, especially in negative relationship situations
* culture differences - chinese people are less prone to correspondence bias than americans
