Volume 4: Snake Catching Flashcards
Reptiles and Heat
Reptiles are ectothermic animals; this actually means that they rely on their surroundings to provide heat and to cool down.
They will bask in the open sun to heat up (heliothermic)
or move into an area to absorb warmth from rocks or other warm surfaces (thigmothermic).
Snake limbs
During the course of evolution snakes have lost all limbs. Some snakes such as pythons have remnants of limbs (cloacal spurs), however these are so reduced that they are often indistinguishable.
Snake smell
Snakes will flicker their tongues to collect scent particles, these particles are then passed over an organ called a Jacobsons organ. These fluid filled sacs are a secondary “olfactory canal”, which is similar to the receptors in the nose of most animals including snakes.
Snake eyelids
One feature of snakes which is very unusual is the fact that they have no eyelids; they cannot blink but they do have a scale that covers their eyes, this is called the brille or ocular scale. This transparent scale completely covers the eye and must be shed with the rest of their skin
Snake jaws
The upper jaw connects to the lower jaw by the quadratebone, which works like a double-jointed hinge so the lower jaw can separate, allowing the mouth to open as wide as 150 degrees. Also, the bones that make up the sides of the jaws are not fused together at the front like the human chin, but instead are connected by muscle tissue, allowing the sides to separate and move independently of one another.
The Brown Snake family tend to feed mainly on
reptiles and rodents.
The Black Snake and Copperhead families tend to feed predominately on
reptiles and amphibians.
Taipans feed mainly on
mammals.
Tiger snakes and Death Adders tend to feed
on whatever prey is available.
Smaller snakes will tend to feed mainly on
reptiles and amphibians.
Most large snakes will typically range over an area of approximately
five hectares; in this area they will instinctively know where there are areas of cover, food items and water sources.
Tiger Snakes are found
along the east and south coast of Australia including Tasmania and southern parts of Western Australia. Typically they are found near wet areas such as creeks, rivers, streams and dams, this is where they are able to find the majority of their food.
Copperheads are found
along the southern coastal areas of Australia including Tasmania; typically they are found near wet areas such as creeks, rivers, streams and dams. This is where they are able to find the majority of their food.
Red Belly Black Snakes are found
from Victoria along the eastern coast of Australia to around Cairns.
Preferring to live around flowing water they are often located near creeks, rivers and streams.
These snakes can be found sharing similar habitat requirements to Tiger Snakes.
Red Belly Black Snakes Typically hunt
reptiles, frogs and fish they are usually very secretive moving through grasslands and tussock grasses.
Eastern Brown Snakes are found
in dry open areas, often found around rocky outcrops and cracking soils. The Eastern Brown has been very successful in populated areas due to the increased amount of food available such as rodents. Brown Snakes are often found around farm properties in areas such as shedding and hay-sheds.
Western Brown Snakes
Recently split into three species this group of snakes is common throughout much of Australia with the exception of the Eastern coastline and the majority of Victoria, feeding largely on lizards, mammals and occasionally other snakes it is a very successful predator, along with the Eastern Brown Snake it has benefited from the addition of new prey items such as mice and rats into Australia.
Dugite
endemic to the southern regions of Western Australia, most will dine on small lizards and the occasional snakes, however some have also been known to eat small mammals, although this is not a common occurrence.
Mulga Snakes
(King Browns): A very large elapid that shares similar habitats to Brown Snakes. Living in open areas and rocky outcrops they prefer to remain around dry semiarid and arid areas. These snakes are often found sheltering in rocky areas, abandoned burrows and hollow logs.
Spotted Mulga Snake
Sometimes referred to as the Yellow Bellied Black Snake, it is endemic to the Arid SW interior of Western Australia on heavy soils dominated by mulga woodlands. This snake will prey on small mammals, however its preference like much of the Black Snake Genus will prefer to eat lizards and snakes.
Coastal Taipans
This species is found along the tropical north of Australia, preferring coastal areas and favoring habitats such as cane fields. These snakes are attracted to areas where prey items such as rats and bandicoots are commonly found.
Death Adders
Usually found hiding amongst leaf litter throughout the dryer areas of Australia, although can be found in areas such as Sydney and other major centers. They require suitable areas to inhabit in order to camouflage and await their prey. This includes rocky outcrops, loose soil including sand and pebbles and leaf layers or other similar vegetation layers intact.
Whip Snakes
This genus of snakes is found throughout mainland Australia and should always be considered as potentially dangerous. They are typically hunting small lizards and are often very difficult to capture do to their flighty nature
Snake behavior is affected by many different factors, some of which include
climatic conditions, reproduction, general anatomy, injuries, defensive behavior and feeding
Females snakes can either be
oviparous (egg laying) or viviparous (born from a membranous sack developed within the female – live bearing).
brumation
As the weather warms up snakes come out of a state of rest known as brumation, this is when the snake is still able to move around, but very slowly due to the fact that the snake is unable to raise its body temperature to a preferred body temperature, they are unable to feed and will typically hide in areas of greatest safety.
During the first few weeks of emergence snakes are
actively foraging for food
as the female nears ovulation
she releases a scent that alerts the males in the area that she is ready for mating, the scent is picked up from great distances, often over 2 km, and many males will come into an area seeking an opportunity to breed
As males converge on an area with ovulating female
some will come into contact with each other, this will inevitably result in ritual combat, there will be a great deal a wrestling and writhing. Typically with elapids there is no biting as they are usually able to withstand the venom injected and it may break off their valuable teeth.
Once dominance has been established after combat
the successful male will then need to recover from the bout and find the female
for bearing females Typically there is a period of
approximately 50-90 days where the female will incubate the eggs within her body, after which she will find an appropriate place to lay the leathery eggs, this is usually in a space which has sufficient humidity to allow the eggs to continue to grow and develop, if it is too dry the eggs will shrivel up and die.
Oviparous snakes will lay these eggs and
leave, they usually do not return (some species of snakes have been shown to coil around the eggs during cooler weather to shiver and warm up the clutch).
Typically the eggs will develop outside the body for
the same period of time as they have inside the body 50-90 days (species dependant).
Viviparous snakes include but are not limited to
Tiger Snakes (Notechis scutatus),
Death Adders (Acanthansis spp),
Red-Bellied Black Snakes (Pseudechis porphyriacus),
Copperheads (Australaps spp)
Typically these Viviparous snakes are found
in cooler regions of Australia with the obvious exception being the Death Adder.
Theory for why viviparous snakes exist
the reason for these snakes not to lay their eggs in cooler areas are that the temperature is difficult to maintain, however the female is able to monitor her own body temperature by moving around and therefore increase or decrease it as required. The entire development of the offspring will take place inside the female; the leathery eggs are replaced by a membranous sack which ruptures as the eggs are ‘laid’ late in Summer to early Autumn.
The juveniles when born or hatched are
very vulnerable, so they feel threatened by everything around them.
A hatchling snake is capable of
inflicting a venomous bite from the moment they are born, it is difficult for the tiny fangs to penetrate human skin, but it has been known to happen. Care should be taken when removing such small animals as this can result in a serious bite as they are highly defensive.
During the period of time that a female is with eggs
(gravid) she can become very defensive herself, especially viviparous snakes because they are filled with eggs or developing young and find it more difficult to move, they are seeking a safe place to have their young and in many cases have not been able to feed for several weeks to months. Their entire purpose is to survive this period and have their young. Snakes have no maternal instinct as far as long term care goes, some pythons have displayed maternal incubation, however once disturbed and moved from the eggs the animal usually moves away, typically most snakes will give birth, or lay eggs and then move away, in extreme cases it has been noticed by the authors that a female will eat some of the offspring to ensure her own survival.
to become active snakes must
bask in some manner to become active, forage and feed, this may be by basking in the sun (heliothermic) or by using a warm surface (thigmothermic). Snakes are not cold blooded animals, they are ectothermic, once they have reached their preferred body temperature they will be able to hunt efficiently and digest food. While snakes are attempting to reach this preferred temperature they often come across as very “aggressive”, this is due to the fact they are aware that they cannot move as quickly as they would normally. They become very defensive and may be difficult to approach.
can snakes overheat?
As reptiles rely on the outside environment to maintain their body temperature they can become distressed if they get too warm. It is possible for snakes to overheat, for this reason they can often be found to move into areas that are cooler, such as verandahs, in front of doorways usually when air-conditioning units are on or in garden beds around water features.
“S” shaped defensive posture
Some snakes like Brown Snakes (Pseudonaja textilis) and Coastal Taipans (Oxyuranus scutellatus) form the characteristic “S” shape showing a readiness to thrust forward and upwards toward the threat
“Hood” defensive posture
Tiger Snakes (Notechis scutatus), Black Snakes (Pseudechis spp) and Copperheads (Australaps spp.) create a “hood” similar to that of a cobra, attempting to look as large and threatening as possible
Snake lungs
The left lung is greatly reduced and often missing in some species
snake diaphragm
they have no diaphragm which means that a reptile cannot cough
snake liver
the liver is elongated
snake reproductive organ
the reproductive organs are located around the intestines. Just past the cloaca are the hemipene retractor muscles
vulnerable anatomy
it is easy to understand how vulnerable a snake is when run over by a car, hit with an object or mishandled. when the ribs are damaged is it easy to see how the ribs could puncture numerous vital organs. There may even be situations where injury has caused paralysis.
snake ribs
The rib cage extends the length of the body from just behind the head to the cloaca, it is supported by strong muscles
the legal methods of euthanasia are
injections of barbiturates, or crushing the skull of the snake. In most parts of Australia a snake controller is not permitted to use barbiturates and hence crushing the skull or decapitation may be the only viable solution.
Snake catchers need to be well aware of a series of
rules and regulations known as Acts, these can be found by contacting the relevant wildlife authority in each state or territory.
Some of the most common misconceptions are:
- Snakes only die after sunset
- Snakes roll down hills with their tails in their mouths
- Snakes are aggressive
- Snakes eat eggs
- Snakes have parental care
- Snakes are identifiable by their colour & shape
- Snakes are territorial
- Blue tongue lizards keep snakes away
- Snakes defend their nests
- Baby venomous snakes are harmless
- Snakes drink milk
- Snake species can interbreed
- Snakes eat babies
- Some snakes chase other snakes away
- Rope Barriers’ keep snakes out
- Snakes should be killed to identify them (if a person is bitten)
- Snakes in Australia have hollow fangs
Whilst some snakes in Australia are egg eating
they usually only eat lizard eggs, this is due to the fact they do not have the ability to crack open the hard shell of the egg. Many pythons have accidentally taken an egg, this is usually because the snake uses its heat pits to find food, birds incubate their eggs by sitting on them and create a warm surface, the snake “sees” the heat and works out that it is easier to consume than the larger bird, usually the snake will move off and regurgitate the egg later. There are snakes overseas that are capable of taking in an egg and cracking it open with special bones that protrude like a very small fork, they apply pressure to the egg and the egg cracks, the snake will consume the contents and spit out the shell.
A typical range for a large elapid can vary from
1-5 hectares; this area depends on the specifics of the area that it is found in. Many snakes can share this space, they will have multiple hiding places and safe spots, they do not actively patrol an area like a mammal and only the female will leave a scent behind, this is to alert males that she is ready to reproduce. If a larger snake finds a smaller snake it will often eat it, this is out of opportunity rather than defending a territory
Snakes will deposit eggs in an area which
is suitable for them to incubate themselves, some snakes, usually pythons have actually shown maternal incubation whereby they coil around the eggs and vibrate (shiver) to maintain a temperature around the eggs. This is not common and usually restricted to pythons. Most females will not return to the area until the following season to lay her next clutch.
It has been estimated that a baby Inland Taipan is capable of killing
14 adult humans from the moment it emerges from the egg.
Snakes and milk
Snakes may smell a strange smell and come to investigate, but they certainly would not drink it, or milk cows. In India, the snakes of snake charmers have been known to drink milk; this is because they are extremely dehydrated and desperate
In Australian elapids it is known that only one genus has hollow fangs which is
the Death Adder genus (Acanthophis), all other genera typically have largely grooved fangs, with at least 40% of the fang being at least slightly usually heavily grooved.
Each State and Territory of Australia has requirements that a person must meet in order to apply for a permit as well as regulations to dictate their behavior as a snake catcher, the Acts are as follows (only listing QLD & NSW)
QLD: Nature Conservation Act 1992, 2006
NSW: National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974
It is the responsibility of the permit holder to ensure the permits are
current, returns are filed and fees are paid. In most States this is annual, except Queensland were returned are due quarterly and renewals are every 6 months.
PPE
- Long medium-heavy weight pants; drill or denim is recommended
- Thick socks
- Sturdy leather work boots
Other safety equipment which may be useful includes
- Gloves: lifting rubbish/sharp cornered objects
- Face mask/shield or safety glasses: instances where snake may be at head height
- Head lamp torch: searching dark areas safely i.e. behind furniture
- Pinch or Jimmy Bar: lifting heavy objects
- Long Sleeve Shirt: added arm protection
- Snake Proof Gaiters or Chaps: added leg protection.
Snake bite is not a common occurrence in Australia with approximately
5000 bites every year (less than 0.03% of the Australian population)
It has been demonstrated that a person is twice as likely to survive a bite if they
receive first aid within the first two minutes of snake bite. The first thing to assume is that the snake is a venomous snake and treat it as such. The victim must be sat down and a compression bandage must be applied to the affected area. If possible place a piece of melanin (an absorbent pad contained in some first aid kits) over the bite site, then apply a compression bandage from the extremities, leaving the fingers or toes exposed to be able to check for circulation and continue to the top of the limb. Apply the bandage as tight as you would for a sprained wrist or ankle and then splint the limb if possible. Contact emergency services immediately and get assistance to come to you, follow their instructions.
Australia is the only country in the world to have a
Snake Venom Detection Kit (SVDK).This is a summary of the basic use of a Snake Venom Detection Kit as described in the CSL Antivenom Handbook. These kits were developed by CSL who produce most available antivenoms. The concept was to allow Doctors and Emergency staff to quickly and easily identify which is the most appropriate & effective anti-venom to administer. It is preferable to use monovalent (specific) antivenom to polyvalent (general or broad range) antivenom as this is significantly less expensive, more effective and safer for the patient.
The primary purpose of the SVDK is
to detect the presence of venom (capable of detecting venom concentrations as low as 0.01ng/ml) and assist in the selection of the most appropriate monovalent antivenom to treat the snake venom detected.These kits make killing snakes for identification purposes completely unnecessary. SVDK’s contain test strips and testing solutions. The test strip consists of freeze dried snake venom antibodies specific to each of the 5 snake anti-venoms (i.e. one well contains Tiger Snake anti-bodies, the next Brown Snake anti-bodies etc) The kit does not indicate which type of snake bit the patient; it indicates the most effective antivenom to neutralise the detected venom.
SVDK procedure
- A swab is taken from the bite site, bandage, melanin, affected clothing or blood specimen
- The swab is then mixed with a solution to bind the venom
- This solution is then placed into each of the wells in the test strip; the strip is gently agitated to mix the sample with the freeze dried contents of the well; a green colour should develop.
- The test strip is then incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes.
- The contents of the wells are then disposed of and the test strip is washed through a gentle stream of tap water or saline, ensuring the wells are thoroughly washed. The strip is then tapped to remove all excess water. This process is repeated at least seven times for a urine or bite site sample and 14 times for a blood sample.
- A drop of Chromogen solution is added to each of the test wells.
- A drop of Peroxide solution is added to each of the wells.
- The strip holder is then agitated gently to mix the two solutions togethert
- The test is then observed continuously over a white background for 10 minutes whilst colour develops. Samples with large amounts of venom present may develop colour within 10 – 30 seconds.
- A positive result is the first well to show blue colour (wells 1 – 5). After the SVDK indicates which anti-venom to use it is not administered immediately
Antivenom is only given if
the patient is showing serious signs of envenomation; symptoms include a range of physical symptoms or abnormal blood tests.
Antivenom is not always administered due to
a variety of reasons. Primarily this is due to the fact that the antivenom is usually made as equine antivenom; that is made from horse plasma. Small amounts of venom are injected into large horses (Percheron’s) over a period of time; this enables the horse to develop antibodies to the venom. After a period of time the horse is then brought back in and approximately 15 litres of blood is extracted and separated. The white blood cells contain the antibodies that can be purified and then freeze dried as antivenom. Obviously this is not a simple process however we have frequently been asked if this is possible for a horse, why not a human. To the best of our knowledge it is not medically possible to do such a thing for all species of snakes due to the complex nature of the different types of venom in the different species of snake.
There are a few possible side effects of anti-venom which is the major reason for this not being administered unless necessary. These may include:
- A sudden fall in blood pressure
- Sudden and uncontrollable tightness of the airways; this can lead to asthma type symptoms including chest tightness, wheezing, coughing and shortness of breath
- Anaphylaxis; especially if patient is on Beta Blockers (for high blood pressure and heart conditions); this can have potentially lethal consequences.
- Serum sickness; rash, fever, joint aches and pains. This can be experienced from 4 – 14 days later
Snakes developed venom to enable them to
immobilise, kill and begin the digestion of prey items; much less effort is required to kill a prey item with venom than by constriction.
Venom is a series of
proteins that are injected into a prey item; these proteins will have a variety of effects on the prey depending on the species of snake, its geographical isolation in comparison to other members of the same species and the prey items that make up the majority of their diet. Some snakes will have proteins that effect mammals more than reptiles and vice versa, for this reason a comparison of venom toxicity is not entirely accurate.
The venom proteins are quite complex and affect animals differently; humans are very susceptible to several of the large venomous snakes. Venom is highly variable between each genus, species and within species populations.
Snake venom may contain in varying quantities
- neurotoxins,
- enzymes,
- haemolytic,
- haemorrhagic,
- pro and anti coagulants,
- myotoxins,
- cytotoxins,
- necrotoxins
- nephrotoxic factors
- cytotoxins
- hepatotoxins
Neurotoxins
Cause paralysis or interfere with nervous system function
Myotoxins
Damage muscle
Haemotoxins
Affect the blood, especially those that affect blood clotting
Haemorrhagins
Damage blood vessels and so cause bleeding
Haemolysins
Damage red blood cells
Nephrotoxins
Damage the kidney
Cardiotoxins
Affect the heart
Necrotoxins
Cause death of tissue
Enzymes
Phospholipase A, hyaluronidase, Lamino oxidase, phosphodiesterase, cholinesterase
Most Australian snakes do not have hollow, hypodermic syringe type fangs: instead they have
grooves which run down the rear of the fang. The only Genus of snakes in Australia which has a hollow fang belongs to the Acanthophis family, the Death Adders.Once released from the venom gland, it then trickles down the groove much like rain along a gutter and into its prey item. Only a small amount of venom will actually penetrate through the skin of the prey, this must be toxic enough to kill or immobilise the prey, it is for this reason that the snakes in Australia have some of the most toxic venom known in the reptile world.
Typically most of the venom from a bite from an Australian elapid will
not enter the body and the injection is very shallow, first aid treatment is highly effective if the first aid is done as quickly and calmly as possible.
The venom usually travels through
the lymphatic system and into lymph glands before being passed into the blood stream. If it is possible to reduce the amount of muscle movement this will slow the movement of the venom through the lymphatic system as it relies on this movement to pump it around the body
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Brown Snakes: (includes Eastern, Western, Spotted & Peninsula Brown Snakes & Dugites)
Powerful presynaptic neurotoxins
Procoagulants
Direct nephrotoxins
(Brown Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids
Tiger Snakes: (includes Eastern, Western, Peninsula & Chapel Island Tiger Snakes; Rough Scale snakes also have very similar clinical effects and are also treated with Tiger Snake antivenom)
Neurotoxins (presynaptic & post-synaptic)
Myolysins
Procoagulants
(Tiger Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Copperheads: (same clinical effects as Tiger Snake venom, but on a smaller scale)
Neurotoxins
Minor myolysis
Possible minor procoagulants
(Tiger Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Broad headed, Pale Headed & Stephens Banded Snakes
Procoagulants
Minor neurotoxins
Minor myolysins
(Tiger Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Red Belly Black Snakes
Minor myolysis
Minor neurotoxins
Necrotoxins
(Tiger Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Mulga or King Brown & Colletts Snakes
Myotoxins
Neurotoxins
Anti-coagulant toxin
(Black Snake antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Death Adders
Post-synaptic neurotoxins (causing paralysis)
(Death Adder antivenom)
Venom components in major Australian Elapids:
Taipans: (includes Coastal, Inland and Kimberley Taipans)
Presynaptic & post-synaptic neurotoxins
Powerful procoagulants
Myolysins
(Taipan antivenom)
It is important to ensure you have completed a current first aid course which covers the use of
Pressure Immobilisation Techniques or Pressure Immobilisation bandages for any Australian snake, remembering that working internationally will alter the first aid techniques and types of venoms encountered.
Snakes belong to the order
squamata, sub-order serpente (Ophidia).
There are seven families of snakes in Australia:
Actochordidae (File Snakes) 2
Boidae (Pythons) 13
Colubridae (Colubrid snakes) 10
Elapidae (Venomous land snakes) 105+
Typhlopidae (Blind snakes) 42
Hydrophilidae (Sea snakes) 31
Laticaudidae (Sea Kraits) 2
diagnostic features that must be looked at in order to correctly identify a snake. A few simple areas that will help in determining where to start are:
Venomous snakes have wide ventral scales in comparison to pythons
Pythons will have smaller ventral scales and more mid-body scales
Most colubrids have a loreal scale (exception being the white bellied mangrove snake Fordonia leucobalia)
Dichotomous keys are
a way of using a feature at a time which is unique to a group of snakes, for example when you look at the dichotomous key for elapids one of the first questions is: Row of scales between eye and upper labials – Acanthophis
No row of scales between eye and upper labials – 2
The next step would be to look at the specimen and determine which of these statements is true, if there are no scales present as described, move to the next identifier as numbered, occasionally these are not in numerical order.
the main distinguishing features for some species is often
frontal shields and rostral scales , for example one simple way to distinguish a Western Brown and Eastern (common) Brown Snake is the shape of the rostral scale, the Western Brown has a much higher rostral scale and the common brown has a thicker shorter rostral scale. This is useful if you have one of each species side by side, but for people who are just starting in identification it can be very difficult to determine. Other techniques can be employed if looking over the head of a dangerously venomous snake is not a priority.
Counting ventral scales can be a long and tedious process, in most elapid species this can range as much as
50 scales within the species and when we look at the group as a whole it will range from 110-248 scales, this is easy to get wrong when the snake is still alive, it may be useful to have a marker of some kind to mark every ten scales to ensure you don’t get near the end and loose your place.
a much easier way where possible to help identify a snake is
the use of anal scales and sub-caudal scales, in elapids they will range from 30-80 and will have distinguishing features such as being single all the way along the snake, divided all the way, or a combination. A divided anal scale can also be very useful to help in identification. If we use the example of the Eastern and Western Brown Snakes, they both have 17 mid body scales, 180-235 ventral scales and divided anal scales, however all the sub-caudal scales in the Western Brown snake are divided, whereas some of the sub-caudal scales in the Eastern brown are single.
Mid-body scale counting is
using the largest part of the snake and counting the scales across the back of the snake, this sounds simple enough and is very easy on sloughs, however with a live snake that has been tubed it is often very difficult, hence it is recommended that this is done at least twice to confirm results. Usually counting is done by starting a the ventral scales on one side of the body and counting in a diagonal line to the opposite side, this is verified by counting to the mid point and then going back down in a v shape to the opposite side, this should result in an identical count.
Pythons
(Family Pythonidae)
16 species
Nocturnal.
Thigmothermic.
Egg layers.
Occupy a wide range of habitat types.
Sized from 60cm-8m
Greater than 30 mid body scales
Python Genus Varieties
Genus Antaresia
Genus Aspidites
Genus Liasis
Genus Morelia
Genus Antaresia:
4 species in Australia these are the smallest known pythons in the world ranging in size from 600mm to 1005mm. Species are usually defined by location and markings.
- *Children’s Python** (Antaresia childreni) named after JG Children who discovered this species. Grow to 1.02m
- *Spotted Python** (Antaresia maculosa) also known as the Eastern Blotched python or Large Blotched python. Grow to 1.05m
- *Pygmy Python** (Antaresia perthensis) smallest python in the world; grow to 61cm.
- *Stimsons Python** (Antaresia stimsoni) also known as the Small Blotched python. Grow to 89cm
Genus Aspidites:
Two species in Australia, no heat pits visable on the head of the snake (have been identified in the nasal cavity in Black Headed Pythons). Species usually identified by head colour.
- *Black Headed Python** (Aspidites melanocephalus) prominent black head, neck and throat; heat pits not present on labial scales but have been identified to be present in the nasal cavity. Grow to 2.6m
- *Woma Python** (Aspidites ramsayi) head neck and throat never black; heat pits not present. Grow to 2.3m
Genus Liasis:
Two species in Australia, heat pits present on some lower labial scales and on 1-2 anterior upper labials but not on the rostral scales, sub-caudal scales divided.
- *Olive Python** (Liasis olivaceaus) midbody scales in 58 - 72 or more rows; heat pits present on labial scales. Grow to 6.5m
- *Water Python** (Liasis mackloti) midbody scales in 45 – 48 rows; heat pits present on labial scales. Grow to 2.5m
Genus Morelia
Five species in Australia, heat pits on rostral scales, lower labials and first few upper labials, sub-caudal scales divided.
- *Amethyst or Scrub Python** (Morelia amethisitina) the largest of the morelia group reaching lengths of up to 8 meters, very large symmetrical plates on head
- *Rough Scale Python** (Morelia carinata) slender snake with keeled dorsal scales and fragmented head scales. Grow to 2m.
- *Oenpelli Rock Python** (Morelia oenpelliensis) slender snake with enlarged symmetrically arranged head shields. Grow to 4.3m
- *Green Tree Python** (Morelia viridis) slender snake with small fragmented head scales. Grow to 1.5m
- *Carpet Pythons** (Morelia spilota) small fragmented head scales, head patterns and colouration are the usual features that determine subspecies of this group.
There are several subspecies recognized by scientists:
- *Diamond Python** (Morelia spilota spilota) found along the east coast of Australia from Victoria to Queensland, usually has a distinct diamond pattern to scales
- *Bredles Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota bredli) often placed in its own species as Morelia bredlifound in central Australia
- *Darwin Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota varigata) as the name suggests it is found in northern territory around the Darwin region.
- *Coastal Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota mcdowelli) found along the coast of Queensland and Northern New South Wales. These are the largest of the Carpet Python species and the most commonly kept in private collections.
- *Murray Darling Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota metcalfei) found along the Murray Darling River systems from South Australia to Queensland, also known as the inland carpet python
- *Western Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota imbricata) found in South Western West Australia.
- *Jungle Carpet Python** (Morelia spilota cheynei) found from north from Townsville
Colubrids Genus Varieties
Genus Boiga
Genus Cerberus
Genus Dendrelaphis
Genus Enhydris
Genus Fordonia
Genus Myron
Genus Stegnotis
Genus Tropidonophis
Colubrids
Family Colubridae
The largest group of snakes in the world, in most continents colubrid’s dominate the snake fauna, except in Australia where only 10 species are found. These include five mildly venomous rear fanged snakes which have both diurnal and nocturnal habits, each of these snakes is known to be egg bearing snakes; 13-23 mid body scales and 1-2 loreal scales.
Genus Boiga
Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis) mildly venomous rear fanged snake with a large bulbous head. 19-23 mid body scales. Grow to 2m.
Genus Cerberus
Australian Bockadam (Cerberus australis) weakly venomous, rear fanged water snake with small upward directed protrusive eyes with vertically elliptic pupils. Nostrils valvular, scales moderately keeled in 23 – 25 midbody rows. Anal and subcaudal scales divided, loreal scales present. Grow to 60cm
Genus Dendrelaphis
- *Northern Tree Snake** (Dendrelaphis calligastra) extremely slender with very large eyes. Black streak from snout to forebody. Grow to 1m.
- *Common Tree Snake** (Dendrelaphis punctulata) non – venomous moderately slender with no dark streak from snout to forebody. Grow to 1.2m
Genus Enhydris
Mackleay’s Water Snake (Enhydris polyepis) weakly venomous rear fanged water snake with long head and small, upward directed eyes with vertically elliptic pupils. Scales smooth in 21 – 23 mid body rows, anal & sub caudal scales divided, loreal scales present. Grow to 87cm
Genus Fordonia
White Bellied Mangrove Snake (Fordonia leucobalia) robust, weakly venomous rear – fanged water snake with broad head, short rounded snout and small eyes with round pupils. Nostril valvular, scales in 23 – 29 mid body rows. Anal & subcaudal scales divided (occasionally a few subcaudals single). Loreal scales absent. Grow to 93cm.
Genus Myron
Richardsons Mangrove Snake (Myron richardsonii) weakly venomous, rear – fanged water snake with long narrow head and small, slightly protrusive upward directed eyes with vertically elliptical pupils. Nostrils valvular, scales weakly keeled in 19 – 23 mid body rows. Anal and subcaudal scales divided, loreal scales present, nasal scales separated. Grow to 42cm.
Genus Stegnotis
- *Slaty Grey Snake** (Stegnotis cucullatus) non – venomous slender snake, scales with 17 – 19 mid body rows. Anal scale single, subcaudal scales divided. Loreal scale present. Grow to 1.3m
- *Slate-brown snake** (Stegnotis parvus) non – venomous slender snake, scales with 17 – 19 mid body rows. Anal scale single, subcaudal scales mostly single, loreal scale present. Grow to 80cm.
Genus Tropidonophis
Keelback; Freshwater Snake (Tropidonophis mairii) non – venomous snake with moderately large eye and round pupil. Scales strongly keeled and matt – textured in 15 mid body rows. Anal and subcaudal scales divided. Loreal scale present. Grow to 93cm
File Snakes
Family Acrochordidae
Fully aquatic snakes found in Northern Australia, only two species described in Australia. Laterally compressed bodies with minute rough scales and loose baggy skin, tiny granular head scales. Non – Venomous live bearing snakes.
File Snakes full info:
- Genus Acrochordus*
- *Arafura File Snake** (Acrochodus arafurae) robust with coarse dark reticulum enclosing paler blotches over dorsal and ventral surfaces. Grow to 2.1m.
- *Little File Snake** (Acrochodus granulatus) small, relatively slender and banded. Grow to 1.6m
Venomous Land Snakes
Family Eladpidae
The most diverse group of Australian snakes is the venomous terrestrial snakes known as elapids. Elapids all have a pair of short fixed fangs at the front of their top jaw, along with other teeth in their mouth. Large, symmetrically arranged head shields and broad expanded ventral scales. This family of snakes does not have any loreal scales; 15-23 mid body scales.They can range in size from minute rapid moving individuals to large 3m specimens. Some will have large acute eyes and be able to rapidly chase prey; others will sit in ambush for days at a time, striking with unparalleled speed. Many of these snakes are exclusively nocturnal, some diurnal and others will move about dependant on the temperature at the time. With only a few exceptions these snakes are mainly vertebrate specialists, only some of the shovel nosed snakes (Brachyurophis spp) prefer reptile eggs. With over 105 identified species of venomous land snakes there are too many to go into great detail, however the main features of the more common snakes that are encountered will be mentioned.
common death adder
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 21-23
ventral 110-160
anal single
sub-caudal 35-60 single
length 70cm
northern death adder
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 23
ventral 110-160
anal single
sub-caudal 35-60 single
length 60cm
Desert Death Adder
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 21
ventral 110-160
anal single
sub-caudal 35-60 single
length 70cm
pilbara death adder
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 19
ventral 110-160
anal single
sub-caudal 35-60 single
length 52cm
copperhead
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 15
ventral 140-165
anal single
sub-caudal 30-55 single
length 1.8m
tiger snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 17-21
ventral 140-165
anal single
sub-caudal 35-65 single
length 2m
inland taipan
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 23
ventral 220-250
anal single
sub-caudal 55-70 divided
length 2m
coastal taipan
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 21-23
ventral 220-250
anal single
sub-caudal 55-70 divided
length 3m
central ranges taipan
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 21
ventral 250
anal blank
sub-caudal 60
length 97cm
king brown snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 17
ventral 185-225
anal divided
sub-caudal 50-70 posterior divided anterior single
length 2.5m
colletts snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 19
ventral 205 or more
anal divided
sub-caudal blank
length 1.5m
spotted black snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 19
ventral 175-205
anal divided
sub-caudal 45-65 divided
length 1.5m
red bellied black snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 17
ventral 170-215
anal divided
sub-caudal 40-64 single
length 2m
western brown snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 17
ventral 180-235
anal divided
sub-caudal 50-70 divided
length 1.6m
common brown snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 17
ventral 180-235
anal divided
sub-caudal 50-70 some single
length 2.2m
dugite
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 19
ventral 180-235
anal divided
sub-caudal divided
length 2m
greater black whip snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 15
ventral 198-228
anal divided
sub-caudal divided
length 1.65m
yellow faced whip snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 15
ventral blank
anal divided
sub-caudal divided
length 1m
lesser black whip snake
scale profile
midbody / ventral / anal / sub-caudal / length
midbody 15
ventral 165-197
anal divided
sub-caudal divided
length 1.2m
Brille
or ocular scale – the scale that covers the eye of snakes, geckoes and legless lizards
Cloaca
the multifunctional opening at the rear of a reptile, this serves both reproductive and waste elimination processes
Cloacal spurs
remnants of hind limbs in pythons found near the cloaca
Gravid
the reptile equivalent of pregnant
Heliothermic
heating up via the sun
Hemipene retractor muscles
the muscles used to draw the hemipene back into the body
Hemipene
the male reproductive organs
Jacobsons organ
an organ in the top of the head where scent particles are passed by the tongue and processed, similar in function to a nose
Loreal scale
scales in front of the eye and behind the nasal scale
Neonate
new born reptile
Olfactory canal
the area which scent is passed into
Oviparous
egg bearing reptiles
Quadrate bone
a bone at the back of the jaw of a snake which enables the snake to open its jaw 150 degrees
Thigmothermic
heating up by pressing against a warm surface
Viviparous
live bearing reptiles
Restraining turtles requires a person to
hold the rear of the shell, palm underneath the shell and thumb on top, the other hand can be used to help restrain the turtle from the front of the shell. Turtles will often use their legs to attempt to get away so a firm grip is required. Do not hold by the side of the shell as the turtle may be able to kick out of the grip or scratch the handler.Turtles are very vulnerable and if dropped by the handler it is possible to do damage to the shell, this must be avoided at all times. Placing your hand at the rear of the shell will result in the animal defecating on your hands, for this reason it is always advisable to have a bottle of hand sanitizing gel available. Although not covered in this booklet, turtles are often encountered during warmer months moving between water areas, seeking new sources of food, moving to lay eggs, overcrowding and many other environmental factors. When moving a turtle always attempt to move in the direction they were moving, they have a reason to perhaps move away from a water source and if taken back will often attempt the move again.
When handling Blue Tongue lizards
it is always important to place one hand loosely around the neck so it cannot bite, also supporting the legs and body to reduce stress, these animals are terrestrial and will be frightened if left dangling in the air.
Dragon lizards should be restrained
in a similar fashion to a Blue Tongue lizard, ensuring the back legs are pulled back along the tail, this makes it safer for the handler. Do not allow the legs to get a grip into the hand or wrist; this will often result in scratches, from larger specimens it can cause minor lacerations and possible infection.
Correct restraint of goannas
Ensure a firm grip around the neck of the goanna, just behind the jaw; this will stop it from turning and biting. At this stage it is important to be mindful of the species, some goanna’s such as lace monitors have long, very flexible necks. Incorrect hand position can result in the goanna biting the wrist or forearm.Pull the back legs along its body, or alternatively place your hand at the base of the tail directly behind the legs. Making sure that the handlers body is not in front of the lizard and keeping all body parts away from the claws at all times. Hold the monitor away from the body and out to one side, a common defensive action is for a monitor to thrash its tail.
coastal carpet snake
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
coastal carpet python
green tree snake
green tree snake
green tree snake
green tree snake
green tree snake
green tree snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
yellow faced whip snake
white crowned snake
white crowned snake
brown tree snake
brown tree snake
brown tree snake
brown tree snake
brown tree snake
brown tree snake
keelback
keelback
keelback
keelback
keelback
keelback
keelback
keelback
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
small eyed snake
golden crowned snake
golden crowned snake
golden crowned snake
golden crowned snake
golden crowned snake
golden crowned snake
red naped snake
red naped snake
red naped snake
marsh snake
marsh snake
marsh snake
marsh snake
marsh snake
spotted python
spotted python
spotted python
spotted python
stephens banded snake
stephens banded snake
pale headed snake
pale headed snake
pale headed snake
bandy bandy
australian coral snake
australian coral snake
australian coral snake
australian coral snake
coastal taipan
coastal taipan
coastal taipan
coastal taipan
coastal taipan
coastal taipan
common death adder
common death adder
common death adder
tiger snake
tiger snake
tiger snake
grey snake
grey snake
grey snake
lesser black whip snake
lesser black whip snake
lesser black whip snake
lesser black whip snake
carpentaria whip snake
carpentaria whip snake
carpentaria whip snake
spotted black snake
spotted black snake
spotted black snake
spotted black snake
spotted black snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
rough scaled snake
dwarf crowned snake
dwarf crowned snake
dwarf crowned snake
dwarf crowned snake
dwarf crowned snake
