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Geophys > Vocab > Flashcards

Vocab Flashcards

1
Q

standard unit

A

a fixed and reproducible reference value used for the purpose of taking accurate measurements

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2
Q

system of units

A

a group of standard units and their combinations. The two major systems of units used today are the metric system and the British system

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3
Q

metric system

A

the decimal system of units most used in the world; also called the mks system

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4
Q

British system

A

the system of units still often employed in the U.S. and is sometimes referred to as the fps system (foot-pound-second)

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5
Q

length

A

the measurement of space in any direction

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6
Q

meter

A

the standard unit of length in the mks system. Equal to 39.37 inches or 3.28 feet.

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7
Q

kilogram

A

the unit of mass in the mks system; 1 kg has an equivalent weight of 2.2 pounds

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8
Q

time

A

the continuous forward-flowing of events

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9
Q

second

A

the standard unit of time. It is now defined in the terms of the frequency of a certain transition in the cesium atom

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10
Q

SI (International System of Units)

A

a modernized version of the metric system that contains seven base units

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11
Q

derived units

A

combinations of fundamental units

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12
Q

conversion factor

A

an equivalence statement expressed as a ratio

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13
Q

significant figures

A

the method of estimating or expressing error in mathematical operations and measurements

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14
Q

physics

A

the most fundamental physical science, concerned with the basic principles and concepts that describe the workings of the unviverse

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15
Q

position

A

the location of an object with respect to another object

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16
Q

motion

A

the changing of position

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17
Q

scalar

A

a quantity that has magnitude but no direction

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18
Q

vector

A

a quantity that has both magnitude and direction

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19
Q

average speed (v)

A

the distance traveled divided by the change in time

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20
Q

distance (d)

A

the actual path length between two points

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21
Q

instantaneous speed

A

how fast an object is traveling at a particular moment or instant

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22
Q

average velocity

A

the change in position/displacement divided by the change in time

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23
Q

displacement

A

the directional straight-line between two points

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24
Q

instantaneous velocity

A

the velocity at a particular instant of time

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25
Q

acceleration

A

the change in velocity divided by the change in time

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26
Q

average acceleration (a)

A

the change in velocity divided by the time for the change to occur

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27
Q

acceleration due to gravity (g)

A

9.80 m/s^2 or 32 ft/s^2

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28
Q

free-fall

A

the state of motion solely under the influence of gravity

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29
Q

terminal velocity

A

the maximum velocity reached by a falling object because of air resistance

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30
Q

centripetal acceleration

A

the “center-seeking” acceleration necessary for circular motion; a=v^2/r

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31
Q

projectile motion

A

the motion of a projected or thrown object under the influence of gravity

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32
Q

force

A

any quantity capable of producing motion

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33
Q

unbalance, or net force

A

the sum of vector forces with a nonzero result. A force capable of producing motion

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34
Q

Newton’s first law of motion

A

an object will move at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force

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35
Q

intertia

A

the natural tendency of an object to remain in a state of rest or in a uniform motion in a straight line

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36
Q

mass

A

the quantity of matter and a measurement of the amount of inertia that an object possesses

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37
Q

Newton’s second law of motion

A

the acceleration of an object is equal to the net force on the object divided by the mass of the object; a=F/m

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38
Q

newton

A

the unit of force in the mks system; 1 kg x m/s^2

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39
Q

weight

A

a measure of the force due to gravitational attraction (w=mg on the Earth’s surface)

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40
Q

friction

A

the ever-present resistance to relative motion that occurs whenever two materials are in constant with each other (solids, liquids, or gases)

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41
Q

Newton’s third law of motion

A

whenever one object exerts a force upon a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force upon the first object

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42
Q

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

A

the gravitational force between two masses (m1 and m2) is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between their centers of mass; F=Gm1m2/r^2

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43
Q

G

A

the universal gravitational constant; G= 6.67 x 10^ -11 Nm^2/kg^2

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44
Q

buoyant force

A

the upward force resulting from an object being wholly or partially submerged in a fluid

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45
Q

Archimedes’ principle

A

an object immersed wholly or partially in a fluid experienced a buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of fluid that it displaced

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46
Q

linear momentum

A

the product of an object’s mass and its velocity

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47
Q

law of conservation of linear momentum

A

the total linear momentum of a system remains constant if there is no external unbalanced forces acting on the system

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48
Q

angular momentum

A

mvr for a mass m going at a speed v in a circle of radius r

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49
Q

torque

A

the force that tends to produce rotational motion

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50
Q

law of conservation of angular momentum

A

the angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted upon by a net torque

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51
Q

work

A

the product of a force and the parallel distance through which it acts

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52
Q

joule (J)

A

a unit of energy equivalent to 1 N m or 1 kg m^2/s^2

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53
Q

foot-pound

A

the unit of work (and energy) in the British system

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54
Q

energy

A

the capacity to do work

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55
Q

kinetic energy

A

the energy of motion equal to 1/2 mv^2

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56
Q

potential energy

A

the energy a body possesses because of its position

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57
Q

gravitational potential energy

A

the potential energy resulting from an object’s position in a gravitational field; in other words, the stored energy that comes from doing work against gravity

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58
Q

conservation of total energy

A

the total energy of an isolated system remains constant

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59
Q

conservation of mechanical energy

A

in an ideal system, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies is constant; Ek + Ep = E (a constant)

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60
Q

power

A

work or energy per unit time

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61
Q

watt (W)

A

a unit of power equivalent to 1 kg m^2/s^3 or 1 J/s

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62
Q

horsepower (hp)

A

a unit of power equal to 550 ft lb/s (746 W)

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63
Q

kilowatt-hour (kWh)

A

a unit of energy (power x time); P = E/t and E = Pt

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64
Q

alternate energy sources

A

energy sources that are not based on the burning of fossil fuels and nuclear processes

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65
Q

renewable energy sources

A

energy sources that cannot be exhausted, such as wind and hydro power

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66
Q

waves

A

the propagation (spreading) of energy from a disturbance

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67
Q

longitudinal wave

A

a wave in which the particle motion and the wave velocity are parallel to each other

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68
Q

transverse wave

A

a wave in which the vibrations are perpendicular to the wave velocity

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69
Q

wavelength

A

the distance from any point on a wave to an identical point on the adjacent wave

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70
Q

amplitude

A

the maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position

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71
Q

frequency

A

the number of oscillations of a wave during one second

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72
Q

hertz (Hz)

A

one cycle per second. The SI unit of frequency

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73
Q

period (T) (physics)

A

the time for a complete cycle of motion

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74
Q

electromagnetic waves

A

a transverse wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields

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75
Q

speed of light

A

c= 3.00 x 10^8 m/s

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76
Q

sound

A

a wave phenomenon caused by variations in pressure in a medium such as air; speed of sound= 340 m/s

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77
Q

intensity (I) of sound wave

A

the rate of energy transfer through a given area, with units of watts per square meter (W/m^2)

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78
Q

sound spectrum

A

an ordered arrangement of various frequencies or wavelengths of sound. The three main regions of the sound spectrum are the infrasonic, the audible, and the ultrasonic

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79
Q

decibel (dB)

A

a unit of sound intensity level; 0.1 bel

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80
Q

ultrasound

A

sound with frequency above 20 kHz

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81
Q

speed of sound

A

how fast sound travels in a medium; for example, speed of sound = 344 m/s in air at room temperature

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82
Q

Doppler effect

A

an apparent change in frequency resulting from the relative motion of the source and the observer

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83
Q

redshift

A

a Doppler effect caused when a light source, such as a galaxy, moves away from the observer and shifts the light frequency lower, or toward the red end of electromagnetic spectrum

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84
Q

standing waves

A

a stationary wave from arising from the interference of waves traveling in opposite directions

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85
Q

resonance

A

a wave effect that occurs when an object has a natural frequency that corresponds to an external frequency

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86
Q

reflection

A

the change in the direction of a wave when it strikes and rebounds from a surface or the boundary between two media

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87
Q

ray

A

a straight line that represents the path of light

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88
Q

law of reflection

A

the angle incidence equals the angle of reflection, as measured relative to the normal, a line perpendicular to the reflecting surface

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89
Q

specular reflection

A

the reflection from very smooth (mirror) surfaces

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90
Q

refraction

A

the bending of light waves caused by a seed change as light goes from one medium to another

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91
Q

index of refraction

A

the ration of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a medium

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92
Q

total internal reflection

A

a phenomenon in which light is totally reflected in a medium because refraction is impossible

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93
Q

dispersion

A

different frequencies of light refracted at slightly different angles, giving rise to a spectrum

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94
Q

focal length

A

the distance from the vertex of a mirror or lens to the focal point

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95
Q

concave or converging mirror

A

a mirror shaped like the inside (concave side) of a small section of a sphere

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96
Q

convex or diverging mirror

A

a mirror shaped like the outside (convex side) of a spherical section

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97
Q

diffuse reflection

A

rays reflected from relatively rough surfaces that are not parallel

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98
Q

real image

A

an image from a mirror or lens that can be brought to focus on a screen

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99
Q

virtual image

A

an image from a lens or mirror that cannot be brought to focus on a screen

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100
Q

convex or converging lens

A

a lens that has a surface shape of the out of the outside (convex side) of a spherical section

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101
Q

concave or diverging lens

A

a lens that has the shape of the outside (concave side) of a spherical section

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102
Q

polarization

A

the preferential orientation of the electric vector of a light wave to one plane

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103
Q

linearly polarized light

A

the condition of transverse light waves that vibrate in only one plane

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104
Q

diffraction

A

the bending of waves when moving past an opening or obstacle that has a size smaller than or equal to the wavelength

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105
Q

principle of superposition (wave)

A

the combined waveform of two or more interfering waves is given by the sum of the displacements of the individual waves

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106
Q

constructive interference

A

a superposition of waves for which the combined waveform has a greater amplitude

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107
Q

destructive interference

A

a superposition of waves for which the combined waveform has a smaller amplitude

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108
Q

quantum

A

a discrete amount

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109
Q

photoelectric effect

A

an emission of electrons that occurs when certain metals are exposed to light

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110
Q

photon

A

a “particle” of electromagnetic energy

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111
Q

dual nature of light

A

light sometimes behaves as waves and sometimes as particles

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112
Q

line emission spetrum

A

a set of bright spectral lines of certain frequencies or wavelengths formed by dispersion of light from a gas discharge tube. Each element gives a different set of lines

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113
Q

line absorption spectrum

A

a set of dark spectral lines of certain frequencies or wavelengths, formed by dispersion of light that has come from an incandescent source source and has then passed through a sample of cool gas

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114
Q

principal quantum number

A

the numbers n = 1, 2, 3, … used to designate the various principal energy levels that an electron may occupy in an atom

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115
Q

ground state

A

the lowest energy level of an atom

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116
Q

excited states

A

the energy levels above the ground state in an atom

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117
Q

fluorescence

A

the property of a substance, such as the mineral fluorite, of producing visible light while it is being acted upon by ultraviolet light

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118
Q

phosphorescence

A

a glow of light that persists after the removal of the source of photons needed for excitation of the material’s electrons

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119
Q

x-rays

A

high-frequency, high-energy electromagnetic radiation formed when high-speed electrons strike a metallic target

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120
Q

laser

A

acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation; it is coherent, monochramatic light

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121
Q

stimulated emission

A

process in which an excited atom is caused to emit a photon

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122
Q

universe

A

everything that is: all energy, matter, and space

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123
Q

celestial sphere

A

the apparent sphere of the sky on which all the stars seem to appear

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124
Q

ecliptic

A

the apparent annual path of the sun on the celestial sphere

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125
Q

celestial prime meridian

A

an imaginary half-circle running from the north celestial pole to the south celestial pole and crossing perpendicular to the celestial equator at the point of the vernal equinox

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126
Q

right ascension

A

a coordination for measuring the east-west positions of celestial objects. The angle is measured eastward from the vernal equinox in hours, minutes, and seconds

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127
Q

declination

A

the angular measure in degrees north or south of the celestial equator

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128
Q

parsec (pc)

A

the distance to a star when the star exhibits a parallax of one second of arc. This distance is equal to 3.26 light years.

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129
Q

photosphere

A

the sun’s outer surface, visible to the eye

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130
Q

proton-proton chain

A

a series of stellar nuclear reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei (protons) combine to form one helium nucleus and release energy

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131
Q

apparent magnitude

A

the brightness of a star (or other celestial object) observed from earth

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132
Q

absolute magnitude

A

the brightness of a star it would have if it were placed 10 pc (32.6 ly) from earth

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133
Q

H-R diagram

A

the plot of the absolute magnitude versus the temperature of stars

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134
Q

main sequence

A

the narrow band on the H-R diagram on which most stars fall

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135
Q

red giants

A

a relatively cool, very bright star that has a diameter much larger than average

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136
Q

white dwarfs

A

a hot white star that has a much smaller diameter and much higher density than average. It is believed to be the final stage of a low-mass star

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137
Q

nebulae

A

vast clouds of interstellar gas and dust

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138
Q

nucleosynthesis

A

the creation of nuclei of elements inside stars

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139
Q

planetary nebula

A

a luminous shell of gas ejected from a old, low-mass star

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140
Q

brown dwarfs

A

low-mass objects that are larger than a typical planet but do not have enough mass to begin fusion in their cores. Also called “failed stars”

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141
Q

nova

A

a white dwarf star that suddenly increases dramatically in brightness for a brief period of time

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142
Q

supernova

A

an exploding star

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143
Q

neutron star

A

an extremely high-density star composed almost entirely of neutrons

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144
Q

black hole

A

an object whose gravity is so strong that the escape velocity is equal to or greater than the speed of light; thus no radiation can escape from the object

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145
Q

galaxy

A

a large-scale aggregate of stars (plus some gas and dust) held together by gravity. Galaxies have a spiral, elliptical, or irregular structure. Each contains, on average, 100 billion solar masses

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146
Q

globular clusters

A

a large, spherical group of gravitationally bound stars, usually found in the outlying regions of the galaxy

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147
Q

Local Group

A

the cluster of galaxies that includes our own Milky Way

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148
Q

dark matter

A

the as-yet-unidentified nonluminous matter in the universe

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149
Q

cosmology

A

the study of the structure and evolution of the universe

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150
Q

Hubble’s law

A

the recessional speed of a distant galaxy is directly proportional to its distance away

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151
Q

Big Bang

A

theory of the beginning of the universe that states that the known universe was smaller hotter, and denser in the past, and that is began rapidly expanding 13.7 billion years ago

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152
Q

cosmic microwave background

A

the microwave radiation that fills all space and is believed to be the redshifted glow from the Big Bang

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153
Q

astronomy

A

the scientific study of the universe, which is the totality of all matter, energy, space, and time

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154
Q

solar system

A

the sun, nine planets and their satellites, the asteroids, the comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust

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155
Q

geocentric model

A

the old false theory of the solar system, which placed the Earth at its center

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156
Q

heliocentric model

A

the model of the solar system that places the sun at its center

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157
Q

law of elliptical orbits

A

all planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse

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158
Q

astronomical unit (AU)

A

the average distance between the earth and the sun, which is 93 million miles

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159
Q

law of equal areas

A

an imaginary line (radial vector) joining a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time

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160
Q

harmonic law (Kepler’s third law)

A

the square of the sidereal period of a planet is proportional to the cube of its semimajor axis (one-half the major axis

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161
Q

terrestrial planets

A

the four inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. All are similar to the Earth in general chemical and physical properties

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162
Q

Jovian planets

A

the four outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. All have characteristics resembling those of Jupiter

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163
Q

prograde motion

A

orbital or rotational motion in the forward direction. In the solar system, this is west-to-east, or counterclockwise, as viewed from above the Earth’s North Pole

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164
Q

retrograde rotation

A

orbital or rotational motion in the backward direction. In the solar system, this is east to west, or clockwise, as viewed from above the Earth’s North Pole

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165
Q

sidereal period

A

the orbital or rotational period of any object with respect to the stars

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166
Q

conjunction

A

when two planets are lined up with respect to the sun

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167
Q

opposition

A

the time at which a planet is on the opposite side of the Earth from the sun

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168
Q

albedo

A

the fraction of incident sunlight reflected by a body’s surface

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169
Q

rotation

A

the turning of an object about an axis passing through the mass

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170
Q

revolution

A

the movement of one mass around another

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171
Q

Foucault pendulum

A

a pendulum that is used to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth

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172
Q

parallax

A

the apparent motion, or shift, that occurs between two fixed objects when the observer changes position

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173
Q

aberration of starlight

A

the apparent displacement in the direction of light coming from a star that results from the orbital motion of the Earth

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174
Q

dwarf planets

A

a new class of planets, of which there are three: Pluto, Ceres, and Eris

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175
Q

solar nebula

A

a large, swirling volume of interstellar cold gas and dust that contracted under the influence of its own gravity and formed in the shape of flattened rotating disk

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176
Q

condensation theory

A

a process of solar system formation in which interstellar dust grains act as condensation nuclei

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177
Q

summer solstice

A

the farthest point of the sun’s latitude north of the equator (for the Northern Hemisphere), around June 21. The beginning of summer

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178
Q

winter solstice

A

the farthest point of the sun’s latitude south of the equator (for the Northern Hemisphere), around December 22. The beginning of winter

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179
Q

autumnal equinox

A

the point where the sun crosses the celestial equator from north to south, around September 22. The beginning of fall

180
Q

vernal equinox

A

the point where the sun crosses the celestial equator from south to north, around March 21. The beginning of spring

181
Q

tropical year

A

the time interval from one vernal equinox to the next

182
Q

sidereal year

A

the time interval for the Earth to make one complete revolution around the sun with respect to any particular star other than the sun

183
Q

precession

A

the slow rotation of the axis of spin of the Earth around an axis perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. The rotation is clockwise as observed from the north celestial pole

184
Q

atoms

A

the smallest particle of an element that can enter into a chemical combination

185
Q

electrons

A

negatively charged subatomic particles

186
Q

quantum mechanics

A

the branch of physics that replaced the classical-mechanical view (that everything moved according to exact laws of nature) with the concept of probability. Schrodinger’s equation forms the basis of quantum wave mechanics

187
Q

nucleus

A

the central core of an atom; composed of protons and neutrons

188
Q

protons

A

positively charged particles in the nuclei of atoms

189
Q

neutrons

A

neutral particles found in the nuclei of atoms

190
Q

nucleons

A

a collective term for neutrons and protons (particles in the nucleus)

191
Q

atomic number (Z)

A

it is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

192
Q

element

A

a substance in which all the atoms have the same number of protons (same atomic number)

193
Q

neutron number (N)

A

the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

194
Q

mass number (A)

A

the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in a nucleus; the total number of nucleons

195
Q

isotopes

A

form of atoms of an element that have the same numbers of protons, but differ in their numbers of neutrons

196
Q

atomic mass

A

the average mass of an atom in naturally occurring samples

197
Q

strong nuclear force

A

the short-range force of attraction that acts between two nucleons and holds the nucleus together

198
Q

radioactive isotopes

A

an isotope that undergoes spontaneous decay

199
Q

radioactivity

A

the spontaneous process of a sample of radionuclide undergoing a change by the mission of particles or rays

200
Q

alpha decay

A

the disintegration of a nucleus into a nucleus of another element, with the emission of an alpha particle

201
Q

beta decay

A

the disintegration of a nucleus into a nucleus of another element, with the mission of a beta particle

202
Q

gamma decay

A

an event in which a nucleus emits a gamma ray and becomes a less energetic form of the same nucleus

203
Q

half-life

A

the time it takes for half the nuclei in a sample of a given radionuclide to decay

204
Q

carbon-14 dating

A

a procedure used to establish the age of ancient organic remains by measuring the concentration of carbon-14 and comparing it to that of present-day organic remains

205
Q

chain reaction

A

occurs when each fission event causes at least one more fission event

206
Q

critical mass

A

the minimum amount of fissionable material necessary to sustain a chain reaction

207
Q

fusion

A

a process in which smaller nuclei are fused to form larger ones, with the release of energy

208
Q

plasma

A

a high-temperature gas of electrons and protons or other nuclei

209
Q

mass defect

A

any decrease in mass during a nuclear reaction

210
Q

temperature

A

a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a sample

211
Q

Fahrenheit scale

A

a temperature scale with 32°F as the ice point and 212°F as the steam point

212
Q

Celsius scale

A

a temperature with 0°C as the ice point and 100°C as the steam point

213
Q

Kelvin scale

A

the “absolute” temperature scale that takes absolute zero as 0 K

214
Q

calories (cal)

A

the amount of heat necessary to raise one gram of water one degree Celsius at normal atmospheric pressure

215
Q

heat

A

a form of energy; energy in transit from one body to another as a result of a temperature difference

216
Q

kilocalories (kcal)

A

the amount of heat necessary to raise one kilogram of water one degree Celsius at normal atmospheric pressure

217
Q

British thermal unit (Btu)

A

the amount of heat required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit at normal atmospheric pressure

218
Q

specific heat

A

the amount of heat energy in kilocalories necessary to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance one degree Celsius

219
Q

latent heat

A

the heat associated with a phase change

220
Q

conduction

A

the transfer of heat energy by molecular collisions

221
Q

convection

A

the transfer of heat through mass movement

222
Q

radiation

A

the transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves

223
Q

phases of matter

A

the physical forms of matter; most commonly solid, liquid, and gas

224
Q

kinetic theory

A

a gas consists of molecules moving independently in all directions at high speeds (the higher the temperature, the higher the average speed). colliding with each other and the walls of the container, and having a distance between molecules that is large, on average, compared with the size of the molecules themselves

225
Q

pressure

A

the force per unit area; p = F/A

226
Q

ideal gas law

A

relates the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature of a gas; p1V1T1=p2V2T2

227
Q

thermodynamics

A

the science of dealing with the production of heat, the flow of heat, and the conversion of heat to work

228
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

the heat energy added to a system must go into increasing the internal energy of the system, or any work done by the system, or both. The law, which is based on the conservation of energy, also states that heat energy removed from a system must produce a decrease in the internal energy of the system, or any work done on the system, or both

229
Q

heat engine

A

a device that uses heat energy to preform useful work

230
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

it is impossible for heat to flow spontaneously from an object having a lower temperature to an object having a higher temperature

231
Q

third law of thermodynamics

A

a temperature of absolute zero can never be attained

232
Q

heat pump

A

a devise used to transfer heat from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir

233
Q

entropy

A

a measure of the disorder of a system

234
Q

chemistry

A

the division of physical science that studies the composition and structure of matter and the reactions by which substances are changed into other substances

235
Q

element

A

a substance in which all the atoms have the same number of protons (atomic number)

236
Q

compound

A

a substance composed of two or more elements chemically combined in a definite fixed proportion by mass

237
Q

mixture

A

a type of matter composed of varying proportions of two or more substances that are just physically mixed, not chemically combined

238
Q

solution

A

a mixture that is uniform throughout. Also called a homogeneous mixture

239
Q

unsaturated solution

A

a solution in which more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature

240
Q

saturated solution

A

a solution that has the maximum amount of solute dissolved in the solvent at a given temperature

241
Q

supersaturated solution

A

a solution that contains more than the normal maximum amount of dissolved solute at a given temperature and hence is unstable

242
Q

molecule

A

an electrically neutral particle composed of two or more atoms chemically combined

243
Q

allotropes

A

two or more forms of the same element that have different bonding structures in the same physical phase

244
Q

periodic law

A

the properties of elements are periodic functions of heir atomic numbers

245
Q

representative elements

A

the A group of elements in the periodic table

246
Q

transition elements

A

the B group of elements in the periodic table

247
Q

inner transition elements

A

the lanthanides and actinides, the two rows at the bottom of the periodic table, make up the inner transition elements

248
Q

periods (chemistry)

A

one of the seven horizontal rows of the periodic table

249
Q

groups

A

the vertical columns in the periodic table

250
Q

metal

A

an element whose atoms tend to lose valence electrons during chemical reactions

251
Q

nonmetal

A

an element whose atoms tend to gain (or share) valence electrons during chemical reactions

252
Q

electron configuration

A

the order of electrons in the energy levels of an atom

253
Q

valence shell

A

an atom’s outer shell, which contians the valence electrons

254
Q

valence electrons

A

the electrons that are involved in bond formation, usually those in an atom’s outer shell

255
Q

ionization energy

A

the amount of energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom

256
Q

ion

A

an atom, or chemical combination of atoms, that has a net electric charge

257
Q

noble gases

A

the elements of Group 8A of the periodic table (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)

258
Q

alkali metals

A

the elements in Group 1A of the periodic table, except for hydrogen (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)

259
Q

halogens

A

the elements in Group 7A of the periodic table (F, Cl. Br, I, At)

260
Q

alkaline earth metals

A

the elements in Group 2A of the periodic table (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)

261
Q

limiting reactant

A

a starting material that is used up completely in a chemical reaction

262
Q

formula mass

A

the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms showing in the chemical formula of he compound or element

263
Q

law of definite proportions

A

different samples of a pure compound always contain in the same elements in the same proportion by mass

264
Q

excess reactant

A

a starting material that is only partially used up in a chemical reaction

265
Q

mole (mol)

A

the quantity of a substance that contains 6.02 X 10^23 formula units (the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12)

266
Q

Avagadro’s number

A

6.02 X 10^23, sybolized N a ; the number of entities in a mole

267
Q

limiting reactant

A

a starting material that is used up completely in a chemical reaction

268
Q

octet rule

A

in forming compounds, atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve electron configurations of the noble gases

269
Q

ionic compounds

A

compounds formed by an electron transfer process in which one or more atoms lose electrons and one or more atoms gain them to form bonds

270
Q

Lewis symbol

A

the element’s symbol represents the nucleus and inner electrons of an atom, and the valence electrons are shown as dots arranged around the symbol

271
Q

Lewis structures

A

“electron dot” symbols used to show valence electrons in molecules and ions of compounds

272
Q

cations

A

positive ions; so called because they move forward the cathode (the negative electrode) of an electrochemical cell

273
Q

anions

A

negative ions; so called because they move toward the anode (the positive electrode) of an electrochemical cell

274
Q

ionic bonds

A

electrical forces that hold the ions together in the crystal lattice of an ionic compound

275
Q

covalent bond

A

the force of attraction caused by a pair of electrons being shared by two atoms

276
Q

polar covalent bond

A

one in which the pair of bonding electrons is unequally shared, leading to the bond’s having a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end

277
Q

electronegativity

A

a measure of the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons to itself

278
Q

polar molecule

A

a molecule that has a positive end and a negative end; that is, one has a dipole

279
Q

chemical properities

A

characteristics that describe the chemical reactivity of a substance; that is, its ability into another substance

280
Q

chemical reaction

A

a change that alters the chemical composition of a substance

281
Q

reactants

A

the original substances in a chemical reaction

282
Q

products

A

the substances formed during a chemical reaction

283
Q

combination reaction

A

one in which at least two reactants combine to form just one product A + B → AB

284
Q

decomposition reaction

A

one in which only one reactant is present and breaks into two (or more) products:
AB → A + B

285
Q

acid

A

a substance that gives hydrogen ions (or hydronium ions) in water

286
Q

equilibrium

A

a dynamic process in which the reactants are combining to form the products at the same rate at which the products are combining to form the reactants

287
Q

base

A

a substance that produces hydroxide ions in water

288
Q

pH

A

a measure (on a logarithmic scale) of the hydrogen ion (or hydronium ion) concentration in a solution

289
Q

acid-base reaction

A

the H+ of acid unites with the OH- of the base to form water, while the cation of the base combines with the anion of the acid to form a salt

290
Q

salt

A

an ionic compound that contains any cation except H+ combined with any anion except OH-

291
Q

acid-carbonate reaction

A

an acid and a carbonate (or hydrogen carbonate) react to give carbon dioxide, water, and a salt

292
Q

double-replacement reactions

A

reactions that take form AB + CD → AD + CB

293
Q

precipitate

A

an insoluble solid that appears when two clear liquids (usually aqueous solutions) are mixed

294
Q

mineral

A

any naturally occurring inorganic crystalline substance (element or compound) that possesses a fairly definite chemical composition and a distinctive set of physical properties

295
Q

silicates

A

any one of numerous minerals that have the oxygen and silicon tetrahedron as their basic structure

296
Q

Mohs scale

A

a list of 10 minerals used to measure the hardness of other minerals

297
Q

cleavage

A

the splitting of a mineral along an internal molecular plane

298
Q

streak

A

the color of a powdered mineral on a streak plate (unglazed porcelain)

299
Q

luster

A

the appearance of a mineral’s surface in reflected light

300
Q

rock

A

a solid, cohesive natural aggregate of one or more minerals

301
Q

igneous rocks

A

rock formed by the cooling and solidification of hot, molten material

302
Q

sedimentary rocks

A

rock formed from lithification, or consolidation, of layers of sediment

303
Q

metamorphic rocks

A

rock that results from a change in preexisting rock due to high pressure or temperature or both

304
Q

uniformitarianism

A

the principle that the same processes operate on and within the Earth today as in the past. Hence the present is considered the key to the past

305
Q

rock cycle

A

the cyclic changes of rock, during which the rock is created, destroyed, and metamorphosed by the Earth’s internal and external geologic processes

306
Q

magma

A

hot, molten, underground rock material

307
Q

lava

A

magma that reaches the Earth’s surface through a volcanic vent

308
Q

plutons

A

intrusive igneous rocks, formed below the surface of the Earth by solidification of magma

309
Q

pyroclastics

A

solid material emitted by volcanoes; range in size from fine dust to large boulders

310
Q

viscosity

A

the internal property of a substance that offers resistance to flow

311
Q

sediment

A

mineral or organic mater deposited by water, air, or ice

312
Q

lithification

A

the process of forming sedimentary rock from sediment; also called consolidation

313
Q

bedding

A

the stratification of sedimentary rock formations

314
Q

metamorphism

A

the process by which the structure and mineral content of a rock are changed while the rock remains solid

315
Q

contact metamorphism

A

a change in rock brought about primarily by heat rather than pressure

316
Q

shear metamorphism

A

a change in rock brought about primarily by pressure rather than heat

317
Q

regional metamorphism

A

a change in rock over a large area, brought about by both heat and pressure

318
Q

hydrothermal metamorphism

A

the chemical alteration of preexisting rocks by chemically reactive, hot-water solutions, which dissolve some ions from the original minerals and replace them with other ions, thus changng the mineral composition of the rock

319
Q

geology

A

the study of the planet Earth; its dynamics, composition, structure, and history.

320
Q

seismic waves

A

the waves generated by the energy release of an earthquake

321
Q

outer core

A

part of the innermost region of he Earth, which is composed of two parts: a solid inner core and a molten highly viscous outer core

322
Q

inner core

A

the innermost region of the Earth, which is solid and probably composed of about 85% iron and 15% nickel

323
Q

mantle

A

the interior region of the Earth between the core and the crust

324
Q

crust

A

the thin outer layer of the Earth

325
Q

Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity)

A

the boundary between the Earth’s crust and mantle

326
Q

lithosphere

A

the outermost solid portion of the Earth, which includes the crust and part of the upper mantle

327
Q

asthenosphere

A

the rocky substratum below the lithosphere that is hot enough to be deformed and is capable of internal flow

328
Q

continental drift

A

the theory that continents move, drifting apart or together

329
Q

Pangaea

A

the giant supercontinent that is believed to have existed over 200 million years ago

330
Q

mid-ocean ridge

A

a series of mountain ranges on the ocean floor, more than 84,000 km in length, extending through the North and South Atlantic, the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific

331
Q

seafloor spreading

A

the theory that the seafloor slowly spreads and moves away from mid-ocean ridges. Believed to be due o convection cycles of subterranean molten material that cause the formation of the ridges and a surface motion in a lateral direction from the ridges

332
Q

remanent magnetism

A

the magnetism retained in rocks containing ferrite minerals after these rocks solidify in the Earth’s magnetic field

333
Q

plate tectonics

A

the theory that the Earth’s lithosphere is made up of rigid plates that are in slow relative motion with respect to each other

334
Q

divergent boundary

A

a region where plates of the lithosphere are moving away from one another

335
Q

convergent boundary

A

a region where moving plates of the lithosphere are driven together, causing one of the plates to be consumed into the mantle as it descends beneath an overriding plate

336
Q

transform boundary

A

a region of the lithosphere where a moving plate slides along one side of another without creating or destroying the lithosphere

337
Q

isostasy

A

the concept that the Earth’s crustal material “floats” in gravitational equilibrium on a “fluid” substratum

338
Q

subduction

A

the process in which one plate is deflected downward beneath another plate into the asthenosphere

339
Q

volcano

A

a hill or mountain formed from lava and rock fragments ejected through a vent in the Earth’s surface

340
Q

earthquake

A

the release or transfer of energy because of sudden movement resulting from stresses in the Earth’s lithosphere

341
Q

faults

A

a break or fracture in the surface of a planet or moon along which movement has occured

342
Q

focus

A

the point within the Earth at which the initial energy release of an earthquake occurs

343
Q

epicenter

A

the point on the surface of the Earth directly above the focus of an earthquake

344
Q

tsunamis

A

an unusally large sea wave produced by a seaquake or undersea volcanic eruption

345
Q

fold

A

a buckling of rock layers into arches (anticlines) and troughs (synclines) as a result of compressional forces

346
Q

volcanic mountains

A

mountains that have been bullt by volcanic eruptions

347
Q

fault-block mountains

A

mountains that were built by normal faulting, in which giant pieces of the Earth’s crust were uplifted

348
Q

fold mountain

A

mountains characterized by folded rock strata, with external evidence of faulting and central evidence of igneous and metamorphic activity. Fold mountains are believed to be formed at convergent plate boundaries

349
Q

geologic time

A

the time span that covers the long history of the Earth

350
Q

fossil

A

a remnant or trace of an organism preserved from prehistoric times

351
Q

paleontology

A

the systematic study of fossils and prehistoric life forms

352
Q

replacement fossil

A

fossil formed when a mineral slowly replaces parts of a buried organism

353
Q

mold

A

a hollow depression formed when an embedded shell or bone is dissolved out of a rock

354
Q

cast

A

fossil formed when new mineral material fills a mold and hardens

355
Q

trace fossil

A

fossil imprint made by the movement of an animal

356
Q

amber

A

fossilized tree resin

357
Q

principle of original horiontality

A

sediments and lava flows are deposited as horizontal layers

358
Q

principle of superposition (geology)

A

the principle that in a succession of stratified deposits, the younger layers lie over the older layers

359
Q

principle of cross-cutting relationships

A

an igneous rock is younger than the rock layers it has intruded (cut into or across)

360
Q

unconformity

A

a break in the geologic rock record

361
Q

index fossils

A

a fossil that is related to a specific span of geologic time

362
Q

correalation

A

establishing the equivalence of rocks in separate regions; correlation by fossils is an example

363
Q

eons

A

the largest unit of geologic times. Eons are divided into eras

364
Q

eras

A

an interval of geologic time that is a subdivision of an eon and is made up of periods and epochs

365
Q

periods (geology)

A

an interval of geologic time that is a subdivision of an era and is made up of epochs

366
Q

absolute (numerical) geologic time

A

the time of past geologic events, established on the basis of the radioactive decay of certain atomic nuclei

367
Q

radiometric dating

A

a general name for dating rocks and organic remains by measuring the rate of decay of radionuclides that the rocks and remains contain

368
Q

geologic time scale

A

a relative time scale based on the fossil contents of rock strata and the principles of superposition and cross-cutting relationships

369
Q

Cambrian explosion

A

the great proliferation of life forms that followed the extinction event at the beginning of the Paleozoic era

370
Q

Great Dying

A

the most devastating extinction known to geologists; it marked the beginning of the Mesozoic era

371
Q

epochs

A

an interval of geologic time that is a subdivision of a period

372
Q

atmospheric science

A

the investigation of every aspect of the atmosphere

373
Q

meteorology

A

the study of the lower atmosphere

374
Q

photosynthesis

A

the process by which plants convert CO2 and H20 to sugars and oxygen

375
Q

troposphere

A

the region of the Earth’s atmosphere from the ground to about 16 km

376
Q

weather

A

the atmospheric conditions of the lower troposphere

377
Q

stratosphere

A

the region of the Earth’s atmosphere approximately 16 to 50 km in altitude

378
Q

mesosphere

A

the region of the Earth’s atmosphere that lies between approximately 50 and 80 km in altitude

379
Q

thermosphere

A

the region of the Earth’s atmosphere extending from about 80 km in altitude to the outer reaches of the atmosphere

380
Q

ozone

A

O3, a form of oxygen found naturally in the atmosphere in the ozonosphere. It is also a constituent of photochemical smog

381
Q

ozonosphere

A

a region of the atmosphere between approximately 15 and 50 km in altitude; characterized by ozone concentration

382
Q

ionosphere

A

the region of the atmosphere between about 70 km and several hundred kilometers in altitude. It is characterized by a high concentration of ions

383
Q

insolation

A

the solar radiation received by the Earth and its atmosphere; INcoming SOLar radiATION

384
Q

Rayleigh scattering

A

the preferential scattering of light by air molecules and particles that accounts for the blueness of the sky. The scattering is proportional to 1/λ^4

385
Q

greenhouse effect

A

the heat-retaining process of atmospheric gases, such as water vapor and CO2, that results from the selective absorption of long-wavelength terrestrial radiation

386
Q

barometer

A

a device used to measure atmospheric pressure

387
Q

relative humidity

A

the ratio of the actual moisture content of a volume of air to its maximum moisture capacity at a given temperature

388
Q

dew point

A

the temperature at which a sample of air becomes saturated; that is, has a relative humidity of 100%

389
Q

psychrometer

A

an instrument used to measure relative humidity

390
Q

anemometer

A

an instrument used to measure wind speed

391
Q

rain gauge

A

an open, calibrated container used to measure amounts of precipitation

392
Q

Doppler radar

A

radar that uses Doppler effect on water droplets in clouds to measure the wind speed and direction

393
Q

wind

A

the horizontal movement of air; air motion along the Earth’s surface

394
Q

air currents

A

vertical air movement

395
Q

convection cycle

A

the cyclic movement of matter (such as air) as a result of localized heating and convectional heat transfer

396
Q

isobar

A

a line on a weather map denoting locations with the same atmospheric pressure

397
Q

Coriolis force

A

a pseudoforce arising in an accelerated reference frame on the rotating (accelerating) Earth. Projectiles are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, as observed in the direction of motion

398
Q

jet streams

A

rapidly moving “rivers” of air in the upper troposphere

399
Q

clouds

A

a buoyant mass of visible droplets of water and ice crystals in the lower troposphere

400
Q

lapse rate

A

the rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude. In the troposphere, the normal lapse rate is -6.5 C°/km

401
Q

Bergeron process

A

the process by which precipitation is formed in clouds

402
Q

coalescence

A

the combining of small droplets of water vapor to make larger drops

403
Q

air mass

A

a mass of air with physical characteristics that distinguish it from other air

404
Q

source region

A

the region or surface from which an air mass derives its physical characteristics

405
Q

front

A

the boundary between two air masses

406
Q

lightning

A

an electric discharge in the atmosphere

407
Q

thunder

A

the sound associated with lightning; it arises from the explosive release of electric energy

408
Q

snowstorm

A

an appreciable accumulation of snow. When accompanied by high winds and low temperatures, it is referred to as a blizzard

409
Q

tornado

A

a violent storm characterized by a funnel-shaped cloud and high winds

410
Q

tornado watch

A

the alert issued when conditions are favorable for tornado formation

411
Q

tornado warning

A

the alert issued when a tornado has actually been sighted or is indicated on radar

412
Q

hurricane

A

a tropical storm with winds of 74 mi/h or greater

413
Q

storm surge

A

the great dome of water associated with a hurricane when it makes landfall

414
Q

hurricane watch

A

an advisory alert that hurricane conditions are a definite possibility

415
Q

hurricane warning

A

an alert that hurricane conditions are expected within 24 hours

416
Q

pollution

A

any atypical contributions to the environment resulting from the activities of humans

417
Q

smog

A

a contraction of SMoke-fOG, used to describe the combination of these conditions

418
Q

temperature inversion

A

a condition characterized by an inverted lapse rate

419
Q

nitrogen oxides (NOx)

A

chemical combinations of nitrogen and oxygen, such as No and NO2

420
Q

photochemical smog

A

air pollution resulting from the photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons with other pollutants and atmospheric oxygen in the presence of sunlight

421
Q

sulfur dioxide (SO2)

A

an atmospheric pollutant formed by the oxidation of sulfur; it contributes to acid rain

422
Q

acid rain

A

rain that has a relatively low pH because of air pollution

423
Q

climate

A

the long-term average weather conditions of a region of the world

424
Q

weathering

A

the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rock

425
Q

permafrost

A

ground that is permanently frozen

426
Q

sinkholes

A

a depression on the land surface where soluble rock (limestone) has been removed by groundwater

427
Q

erosion

A

the downslope movement of surface and near-surface materials as a result of gravity and the agents that cause such movements

428
Q

stream

A

any flow of water occurring between well-defined banks

429
Q

flood plain

A

the land next to a river or stream that can become inundated when the river or stream overflows

430
Q

meander

A

the looping, ribbon-like path of a river channel that results from accumulated deposits of eroded material having diverted the stream flow

431
Q

delta

A

the accumulation of sediment formed where running water enters a large body of water such s a lake or ocean

432
Q

glaciers

A

a large ice mass that consists of recrystallized snow and that flows on a land surface under the influence of gravity

433
Q

glacial drift

A

general term for solid material transported and deposited by a glacier

434
Q

moraines

A

a ridge of glacial drift

435
Q

desert

A

an area on the Earth’s surface that has a severe lack of precipitation

436
Q

mass wasting

A

the downslope movement of overburden under the influence of gravity

437
Q

creep

A

a type of slow mass wasting that involves the particle-by-particle movement of weathered debris down a slope, which takes place year after year

438
Q

groundwater

A

water that soaks into the soil

439
Q

permeability

A

a material’s capacity to transmit fluids

440
Q

water table

A

the boundary between the zone of aeration and the zone of saturation

441
Q

aquifer

A

the body of permeable rock through which groundwater moves

442
Q

long-shore current

A

a current along a shore that results from waves that break at an angle to the shoreline

443
Q

tides

A

the periodic rise and fall of the water level along the shores of large bodies of water

444
Q

seamounts

A

an isolated submarine volcanic structure

445
Q

continental shelves

A

the moderately sloping, submerged margin of a continental landmass

446
Q

continental slopes

A

the seaward slope beyond the continental shelf. It extends downward to the ocean basin

Geophys (2 decks)

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