Vocab Flashcards
the institutions and processes through which public policies are made for a society
government
a system of selecting policymakers and of organizing government so that policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences
democracy
a democracy in which citizens themselves vote on all laws and create policies for their country
direct democracy
citizens elect officials to make laws and these representatives are accountable to those who they govern
representative democracy
the citizens elect the legislature and the legislature elects the executive
parliamentary democracy
the citizens elect the legislative and executive branches
presidential democracy
a system of government that views individual freedom as subordinate to the powers and authorities of the state
authoritarian
a single individual retains all of the power in a country
dictatorship
the supreme power in government is lodged in the hands of a king, queen, or emporor
monarchy
a small group of people control the government
oligarchy
a form of government where the national government holds most of the power
unitary
a government in which state and local governments hold most of the power
confederate
the government’s power is divided and/or shared between national and local government
federal
the process by which we select our governmental leaders and what policies these leaders pursue; produces authoritative decisions about public issues
politics
the party’s opinion on various public policy issues; written every four years at the national convention
party platform
the issues that attract the serious attention of people involved in politics
policy agenda
the process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time
policymaking system
political channels through which people’s interests, problems, and concerns become political issues on the policy agenda
linkage institutions
ex. political parties, elections, media, interest groups
an overall set of values widely shared within a society
political culture
a problem that arises when people disagree about a problem and how to fix it
political issue
all the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of leaders or the policies they pursue
political participation
groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics
single-issue groups
things, such as clean air and clean water, that everyone must share
public goods
a choice that government makes in response to a political issue
public policy
a condition that occurs when no coalition is strong enough to form a majority and establish policy; the result is that nothing may get done
gridlock (policy)
a theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies
pluralism
a theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened
hyperpluralism
a theory of government and politics contending that societies are divided among class lines
elite and class theory
a fundamental principle of traditional democratic theory that states that in a democracy, choosing among alternatives requires that the great number of citizens’ desire be respected
majority rule
a principle of traditional democratic theory that guarantees rights to those who do not belong to majorities and allows that they might join majorities through persuasion and reasoned argument
minority rights
opponents of the American Constitution at the time when the states were contemplating its adoption; thought it favored the wealthy elite and didn’t protect individual rights
Anti-Federalists
the first constitution of the United States, adopted by Congress in 1777 and enacted in 1781
Articles of Confederation
a legislature divided into two houses
Bicameral Legislature
an act of legislature allowing people to be convicted of a crime without a trial
Bills of Attainder
an important part of the Madisonian model designed to limit government’s power by requiring that power be distributed among the different governmental institutions; these institutions continually limit one another’s activities
Checks and Balances
the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention that established two houses of Congress: the House of Representatives and the Senate
Connecticut Compromise
the idea that government derives its authority by sanction of the people
Consent of the Governed
a nation’s basic law; it creates political institutions, assigns or divides powers in government, and often provides certain guarantees to citizens
Constitution
1776 document approved by representative of American colonies that stated their grievances against the British monarch and proclaimed their freedom
Declaration of Independence
an American institution created by the Constitution that provides for the selection of the President
Electoral College
a law that allows a person or group of people to be punished, or have their punishment increased when the penalty of the crime changes after their actions
Ex Post Facto Laws
interest groups arising from the unequal distribution of property or wealth
Factions
a collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name “Publius” to defend the Constitution in detail
Federalist Papers
supporters of the U.S. Constitution at the time the states were contemplating its adoption
Federalists
the power of the courts to determine whether acts of Congress and, by implication, the executive are in accord with the U.S. Constitution
Judicial Review
the idea that certain restrictions should be placed on government to protect the natural rights of citizens
Limited Government
a structure of government proposed by James Madison which separated the government into three branches and worked against faction control
Madisonian Model
rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property
Natural Rights
the proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for equal representation of each state in Congress regardless of the state’s population
New Jersey Plan
the principle that government is created to serve the will of the people and is subject to them
Popular Sovereignty
the approval of legislation needed for it to take effect and be legally valid
Ratification
a form of government which derives its power from the people
Republic
a feature of the Constitution which requires each of the three branches to be relatively independent of the others so one cannot control the others
Separation of Powers
a series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings
Shays’ Rebellion
an agreement which results in the formation of a state or organized society, the prime motive being the desire for protection
Social Contract Theory
representation and taxation were based on the number of free people and three-fifths of the number of slaves
Three-Fifths Compromise
a legislature with only one house
Unicameral Legislature
the proposal at the Constitutional Convention that called for representation of each state in Congress in proportion to that state’s share of the U.S. population
Virginia Plan
a court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody
Writ of Habeas Corpus
a policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment for members of some previously disadvantaged group
Affirmative Action
requires employers and public facilities to make “reasonable accommodations” for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
policies designed to protect people against government officials’ and individuals’ arbitrary or discriminatory treatment
Civil Rights
made racial discrimination against any group in hotels, motels, and restaurants illegal and forbade many forms of job discrimination
Civil Rights Act (1964)
the issue raised when women are paid less than men for working at jobs requiring similar skill
Comparable Worth
segregation that occurs as a matter of fact
De Facto Segregation
segregation that is permitted and enforced through law
De Jure Segregation
clause that emphasizes that the laws must provide equivalent defense for all individuals
Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
passed by Congress in 1972; states that “equality of rights under the law shall not be abridged because of sex”
Equal Rights Amendment
guaranteed African Americans the right to vote
Fifteenth Amendment
a term that refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates
Gender Gap
an unofficially acknowledged barrier to advancement in a profession, especially affecting women and minorities
Glass Ceiling
used by Southern states; exempted persons whose grandfathers voted in 1860 from taking literacy tests in order to vote
Grandfather Clause
segregational laws used in the South to relegate African Americans to separate school systems, public facilities, and restrooms
Jim Crow Laws
women cannot be denied or subject to discrimination in any education program
Title IX of the Higher Education Act (1972)
prohibited poll taxes in federal elections
Twenty-Fourth Amendment
prohibited any government from using voting procedures that denied a person the vote based on race and abolish date use of literacy requirements for people who completed sixth grade
Voting Rights Act (1965)
federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services
Block Grants
federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes of state and local spending; they come with strings attached, such as non discrimination provisions
Categorical Grants
part of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution which gives Congress the power to regulate trade with foreign nations, and among the several states
Commerce Clause
authorities shared by both the states and the federal government
Concurrent Powers
a system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government; they may also share costs, administration,and blame
Cooperative Federalism
transferring responsibility for policies from the federal government to state and local governments
Devolution
a system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies
Dual Federalism
powers of the federal government that are specifically addressed in the Constitution
Enumerated powers
a legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed
extradition
a way of organizing the government so that two levels of government have formal authority over the same land and people in a system of shared power
federalism
the pattern of spending, taxing, and providing grants in the federal system; it is the cornerstone of the national government’s relations with state and local governments
fiscal federalism
federal categorical grants distributed according to a equation specified in legislation or in administrative regulations
formula grants
part of Article IV, Section 1 of the Constitution requiring each state to recognize the official documents and civil judgements rendered by the courts of other states
full faith and credit clause
the federal government give the states money to help them do whatever they want them to do
funded mandates
powers of the federal government that go beyond those enumerated in the Constitution
implied powers
the workings of the federal system; the entire set of interactions among national, state, and local governments
intergovernmental relations
commerce that exists or occurs within the boundaries of a state
intrastate commerce
part of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution which authorizes Congress to pass all laws required to carry out the enumerated powers
necessary and proper clause
part of Article VI, Section 2 of the Constitution according citizens of each state most of the rights of citizens of other states
privileges and immunities clause
federal grants given for specific purposes and awarded on the basis of the merits of applications
project grants
powers of the state government
reserved powers
Article VI of the Constitution
supremacy clause
a statute or regulation that requires a state or local government to perform certain actions, with no money provided for fulfilling the requirements.
unfunded mandates
the legal constitutional protections against government
Civil Liberties
the legal requirement that the conduct in a legal case must de done in a way that protects the rights of all the people involved
Due Process
the clause guaranteeing that persons cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property by the United States or state governments without full legal proceedings
Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
part of the First Amendment stating that “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion”
Establishment Clause
a First Amendment provision that prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion
Free Exercise Clause
the exception to the Exclusionary Rule which allows illegally seized evidence to be admissible if the officers had a reasonable belief that they were acting according to legal authority
Good Faith Exception
the legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment
Incorporation Doctrine
the publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone’s reputation
Libel
the principle that provides that objects that are visible to an officer who is rightfully in a position to observe them can be seized without a search warrant and can be used as evidence
Plain View Rule
a government’s preventing material from being published
Prior Restraint
the situation occurring when the police have reason to believe that a person should be arrested; in making the arrest, police are allowed legally to search for and seize incriminating evidence
Probable Cause
a legal standard of proof to justify stopping and sometimes searching people thought to be involved in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts
Reasonable Suspicion
the right to a personal life free from the intrusion of government
Right to Privacy
a written authorization from a court specifying the area to be searched and what the police are searching for
Search Warrant
the situation occurring when an individual accused of a crime is compelled to be a witness of themselves in court
Self-Incrimination
spoken defamation
Slander
nonverbal communication
Symbolic Speech
obtaining evidence in a haphazard or random manner
Unreasonable Searches and Seizures
the rule that evidence, no matter how incriminating, cannot be introduced into a trial if it was not constitutionally obtained
Exclusionary Rule
characteristics of population changes
demographics
a tool for understand demographic changes; the Constitution requires that the government conduct an “actual enumeration” of the population every ten years
census
the mixing of cultures, ideas, and peoples that has changed the American nation
melting pot
a concept suggesting that the cultures in the United States are juxtaposed and do not merge into a single homogenous culture
salad bowl
an overall set of values widely shared within a society
political culture
the emergence of a non-Caucasian majority, as compared with a white, generally Anglo-Saxon, majority
minority majority
an act which requires that employers document the citizenship of their employees
Simpson-Mazzoli Act
the process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every ten years on the basis of the results of the Census
reapportionment
the process through which a young person acquires political orientations as they grow up, based on inputs from parents, teachers, the media, and friends
political socialization
a poll taken by sampling a cross section of the public in order to gage their viewpoint on issues
public opinion polls
a relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole
sample
key technique employed by survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample
random sampling
the level of confidence in the findings of public opinion poll
sampling error
a technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey
random digit dialing
voters who support a candidate merely because they see others doing so
bandwagon effect
public opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision
exit poll
a coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose; helps give meaning to political events, personalities, and policies
ideology
a person who favors more local, limited government, less governmental regulations, conformity to social norms, and harsher treatment of criminals
Conservative
a person who favors more government involvement in business, social welfare, minority rights, and increased government spending
Liberal
a person with both liberal and conservative or centrist views
Moderate
the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates
gender gap
a form of political participation that reflects a conscious decision to break a law believed to be immoral and to suffer the consequences
civil disobedience
the behavior of citizens and policymakers and the political agenda itself are increasingly shaped by technology
high tech politics
television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other means of popular communication
mass media
occurrences purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous
media events
meetings of public officials with reporters
press conference
the use of in-depth reporting to unearth scandals, at times putting reporters in adversarial relationships with political leaders
investigative journalism
the 1960 presidential argument between candidates; the first televised one
Kennedy-Nixon debate
newspapers and magazines, as compared to tv and stuff
print media
sensational style of reporting focused on violence, corruption, wars, and gossip, often with a less-than-scrupulous regard for the truth
yellow journalism
reform-minded American journalists that exposed injustice, scandals, scams, or schemes
muckraker
television, radio, and the Internet, as compared with newspapers and stuff
broadcast media
commission that prevents near monopolies of control over a broadcast market, examines goals and performance of stations to ensure stations serve public interest, and employ fair treatment rules so candidates and officeholders get equal access
Federal Communication Commission
media programming on cable tV or the internet that is focused on one topic and aimed at a particular audience
narrowcasting
newspaper published by massive media conglomerates that account for more than four-fifths of the nation’s daily newspaper circulation
chain
specific locations from which news frequently emanates
beats
an intentional news leak for the purpose of assessing the political reaction
trial balloons
short video clips of approximately 10 seconds
sound bite
the paradigm of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events that are reported and how they are covered
media bias
a shot of a person’s face talking directly to the camera
talking head
influences which subjects become national political issues and for how long
gatekeeper function
helps make political reputations, decides which candidates are winners and losers
scorekeeper function
a candidate who leads the polls
front runner
political journalism focused on how well candidates re doing rather than political issues
horse race coverage
closely following the front-runner candidates, searching for anything in their history that will make news
watchdog function
shapes what politicians give their serious attention to
agenda-setting function
people who invest their political “capital” in an issue
policy entrepreneurs
a senior advisor who provides advice on how to deal with the news media; the White House’s relays information on the president’s administration to the press on a daily basis
press secretary
a White House staff which meets with reporters, briefs the President on questions he is likely to be asked, attempts to control the flow of news
White House Press Corps
campaign professionals who provide candidates with advice and services on media relations, advertising strategy, and opinion polling
media consultant
commercials that attempt to influence or comment on a matter which is currently the subject of a political debate
political advertising
a commercial which promotes a particular position without directly supporting a candidate
issue ad
campaign commercial that disparages the opposing candidate’s qualifications, character, image, or position
attack ad
the battle of the parties for control of public offices, important element of American politics
party competition
a team seeking to control the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly constituted election
political party
popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians, assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives
rational choice theory
a political party as it exists with voters that identify themselves as members of a party
party-in-electorate
the voter’s perception of what the republicans or democrats stand for
party image
a citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party of the other
party identification
voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices; now a norm of American voting behavior
ticket splitting
party as it exists with leaders, officers, staff, and budget; keeps party running
party organization
a type of political party organization that relies heavily on material inducements, such as patronage, to win votes and to govern
party machine
one of the key inducements used by party machines; a job, promotion, or contract given for political reasons rather than merit or competence alone
patronage
the meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party’s platform
national convention
a political party’s statement of tis goals and policies for the next four years
party platform
responsible for the day-to-day activities of the party and is usually handpicked by the presidential nominee
national chairperson
one of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions
national committee
party members becoming elected officials and influencing politics
party-in-government
historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power, which tends to win a majority of the elections
party eras
an electoral “earthquake” where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority party is often displaced by the minority party
critical election
the displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election period
party realignment
a union forged by the Democrats, who dominated American politics from the 1930s to 1960s, its basic elements were the urban working class ethnic groups, Catholics and Jews, the poor, Southerners, and African Americans
New Deal coalition
the gradual disengagement of people and politicians from the parties, as seen in part by shrinking party identification
party dealignment
electoral contenders other than the two major parties
third parties
offshoots of a major party
splinter party
a system where two major political parties dominate politics within a government
two-party system
an electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the candidates who come first in their constituencies
winner-take-all system
an electoral system used throughout most of Europe that awards legislative seats to political parties in proportion to the number of votes won in an election
proportional representation
a system of government in which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run for national election, and all have a similar chance of gaining control of government offices
multi-party system
when two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature
coalition government
parties should offer clear choices to the voters, who can then use those choices as cues to their own preferences of candidates; once in office, parties would carry out their campaign promises
responsible party model
a meeting of all state party leaders for selecting delegates to the national party convention; usually organized as a pyramid
caucus
the nation’s first caucus since 1972
Iowa caucus
an election to appoint delegates to a party conference or to select the candidates for a principal, especially presidential, election
primary election
election to select party nominees in which voters can decided on Election Day, whether they want to participate in the Democratic or Republican contests
open primary
election to select party nominees in which only people who have registered in advance with the party can vote for that party’s candidates
closed primary
delegates chosen at the state or local level with the understanding that they will support a particular candidate at the convention
pledged delegates
delegates with no obligation to support a particular candidate
unpledged delegates
a commission formed at the 1968 Democratic convention in response to demands for reform by minority groups and others who sought better representation
McGovern-Fraser Commission
national party leaders who automatically get a delegate slot at the Democratic national party convention
superdelegates
the first primary to occur traditionally
New Hampire primary
the recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention
frontloading
a proposal which would replace caucuses and presidential primaries with a universal primary held early in the election year
national primary
the supreme power within each party; meets every four years to nominate the party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates and to write the party’s platform
national convention
the official endorsement of a candidate for office by a political party
nomination
sending information and requests for money to people whose names appear on lists of those who have supported similar views or candidates in the past
direct mail
a law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances; created a Commission, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general election, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions
Federal Election Campaign Act
a six-member bipartisan agency created by the federal Election Campaign Act which administers the campaign finance laws and enforces compliance with their requirements
Federal Election Commission
money from the $3 federal income tax check-off goes into this fund,w which is then distributed to qualified candidates to subsidize their presidential campaigns
Presidential Election Campaign Fund
contributions of up to $250 are met from the Presidential Election Campaign Fund to candidates for the presidential nomination who qualify and agree to meet various conditions like limiting their overall spending
matching funds
political contributions that are limited in amount and fully disclosed
hard money
Supreme Court decision that struck down portion of the Federal Election Campaign Act that limited the amount of money individuals could contribute to their own campaigns
Buckley v. Valeo
an act which banned soft-money contributions, prohibited corporations and unions from using their general treasury funds to pay for electioneering communications in the last 60 days of federal campaigns
McCain-Feingold act
political contributions earmarked for party-building expenses at the grass-roots level or for generic party advertising
soft money
independent groups that seek to influence the political process but are not subject to contribution restrictions because they do not directly seek the election of particular candidates
527 groups
funding vehicles created by the 1974 campaign finance reforms; a corporation, union, or interest group can create one of these and register it with the FEC, which will meticulously monitor the thing’s expenditures
poltical action committees
a type of independent political funding thing which may raise unlimited sums of money
super PACs
a characterization of elections by political scientists meaning that they are almost universally accepted as a fair and free method of selecting political leaders; when it is high, even the losers accept the results peacefully
legitimacy
a state-level method of direct legislation that gives voters a chance to approve or disapprove proposed legislation or a proposed constitutional amendment
referendum
a procedure that allows voters to call a special election for a specific official in order to attempt to throw them out of office before the end of their term
recall
a process by which voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a vote if sufficient signatures are obtained on petitions calling for such a referendum, permitted in some states
initiative petition
the belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should always vote
civic duty
the belief that one’s political participation really matters –that one’s vote can make a difference
political efficacy
a system adopted by the states that requires electors to sign up well in advance of Election Day
voter registration
requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver’s license
Motor Voter Act
the idea that the winning candidate has a request from the people to carry out their platforms and politics
Mandate Theory of Elections
electoral choices that are made on the basis of the voters preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on issues
policy voting
a citizen’s self proclaimed preference for one party of the other
party identification
a theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: “What have you done for me lately?”
retrospective voting
an organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals
interest group
the theory that the government is excessively deferent to groups; virtually all pressure group demands are legitimate and the government’s job is to advance them all
interest group liberalism
all the people who might be interest group members because they share some common interest
potential group
that part of the potential group consisting of members who actually join
actual group
something of value that cannot be withheld from a group member
collective good
the issue faced by unions and other groups when people do not join the group because they can benefit from the group’s activities without officially joining
free rider problem
a principle stating that the larger the group, the further it will fall short of providing an optimal amount of a collective goal
Olson’s Law of Large Groups
good that a group can restrict to those who pay their annual dues
selective benefits
groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics
single issue group
a communication by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf directed to a governmental decision maker with the hope of influencing their decision
lobbying
an act requiring congressional lobbyists to register and state their policy goals
Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act
the illegal practice of using one’s influence in government or connections with persons in authority to obtain favors or preferential treatment for another, usually in return for payment
influence peddling
employment cycle in which individuals who work for government agencies regulating interests eventually end up working for interest groups or businesses with the same policy concern
revolving door
attempts to influence legislation by attempting to affect the opinion of the public with respect to the legislation
grassroots lobbying
multiple interest groups with similar interests bonding together and lobbying as a group
coalition lobbying
direct group involvement in the electoral process; group can help find campaigns, provide testimony, and get members to work for candidates, and some form political action committees
electioneering
those already holding office
incumbent
the process of taking legal action; when individuals go to court to get a positive ruling for their cause
litigation
lawsuits permitting a small number of people to sue on behalf of all other people similarly situated
class action lawsuits
legal briefs submitted by a “friend of the court” for the purpose of raising additional points of view and presenting information not contained in the briefs of the formal parties; attempt to influence a court’s decision
amicus curiae briefs
entity composed of bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees, which have dominated some areas of domestic policymaking; characterized by mutual dependency
iron triangle
a state law forbidding requirements that workers must join a union to hold their jobs
right-to-work laws
a provision found in some collective bargaining agreements requiring all employees of a business to join the union within a short period and to remain members as a condition of employment
union shop
organizations that seek a collective good, the achievement of which will not selectively and materially benefit the membership or activities of the organization
public interest lobbies
commerce that occurs with states to other states
interstate commerce
The branches of government charged with taking action on political issues
policymaking institutions
a policy designed to ensure competition and prevent monopoly, which is the control of a market by one company
antitrust policy
an economic system based on the profit-motive and the private ownership of capital
capitalism
a process of negotiation between employees and a group of employers aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries
collective bargaining
the key measure of inflation that relates the rise in prices over time
consumer Price Index (CPI)
the country’s central banking system, which is responsible for the nation’s monetary policy by regulating the supply of money and interest rates
Federal reserve System
use of the federal budget of taxes, spending, and borrowing to influence the economy
fiscal policy
a federal agency in the Department of Health and Human Services established to regulate the release of new foods and health related products
Food and Drug Administration
a rise in the general level of prices
inflation
the theory emphasizing that government spending and deficits can help the economy weather its normal ups and downs
Keynesian Economics
an organization of workers that tris to improve working conditions, wages, and benefits for its members
labor union
a policy that government should interfere as little as possible in the nation’s economy
laissez-faire
a minimum price that an employer can pay a worker for an hour of labor
minimum wage
an economy in which private enterprise exists in combination with a considerable amount of government regulation and promotion
mixed economy
an economic theory holding that variations in unemployment and the rate of inflation are usually caused by changes in the supply of oney
monetarism
government manipulation of the supply of money in private hands
monetary policy
a business that operates in many countries
multinational corporations
a 1935 law, which guarantees workers the right of collective bargaining sets down rules to protect unions and organizers, and created the National Labor Relations Board to regulate labor-management relations
National Labor Relations Act
economic policy of shielding an economy from imports
protectionism
government agency having primary responsibility for enforcing the federal securities laws and regulating the securities industry
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
economic theory that lower taxes will boost the economy as business and individuals invest their money, thereby creating higher tax revenue
supply side economics
the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed
unemployment rate
international organization that regulates international trade
World Trade Organization (WTO)
a “negative income tax” that provides income to very poor individuals in lieu of charging them federal income taxes
Earned Income Tax Credit
a government benefit to which certain qualified individuals are entitled by law, regardless of need
entitlement programs
the increasing concentration of poverty among women, especially unmarried women and then children
feminization of poverty
amount of funds collected between any two points in time
income
the “shares” of the national income earned by various groups
income distribution
a government program available only to individuals below a poverty line
means-tested programs
a method used to count the number of poor people; considers what a family must spend for an “austere” (basic) standard of living
poverty line
a tax by which the government takes a greater share of the income of the rich than of the poor
progressive tax
a tax by which the government taxes the same share of income from everyone, rich and poor alike
proportional tax
a tax by which the burden falls relatively upon low-income groups than upon wealthy taxpayers; opposite of progressive tax
regressive tax
a “bank account” into which Social Security contributions are “deposited” and used to pay out eligible recipients
Social Security Trust Fund
a policy that provides benefits to individuals, either through entitlements or means testing
social welfare policies
a benefit given by the government directly to individuals
transfer payments
the value of assets owned
wealth
the law that charged the Department of transportation with the responsibility to reduce automobile emissions
Clean Air Act (1970)
this law requires the federal government to protect actively each of the hundreds of species listed as endangered
endangered Species Act
an agency of the federal government created in 1970 and charged with administering all the government’s environmental legislation
Environment Protection Agnecy
Organization contracted by individuals or insurance companies to provide health care for a yearly fee
Health Maintenance Organization
a public assistance program designed to provide health care for poor Americans
Medicaid
a program added to the social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly ad permits older americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other medical expenses
Medicare
a compulsory insurance program for all Americans that would have the government finance citizens’ medical care
national Health Insurance
agency established by Congress to oversee working conditions by setting and enforcing labor standards
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
a fund created by Congress in 1980 to clean up hazardous waste sites that is funded by taxes on chemical products
superfund
a law intended to clean up the nation’s rivers and lakes, requiring municipal, industrial,and other polluters to use pollution control technology and secure permits from the ePA for discharging waste products into waters
Water Pollution Control Act (1972)
a tense relationship beginning in the 1950s between the Soviet Union and the United States whereby one side’s weaponry became the other side’s goad to procure more weaponry, and so on
Arms race
the ratio of what is paid for imports to what is earned from exports
balance of trade
an agency created after World War II to coordinate American intelligence activities abroad
Central Intelligence Agency
war by other than military means usually emphasizing ideological conflict
Cold War
a foreign policy strategy that called for the United States to isolate the Soviet Union, “contain” its advances, and resist its encroachments by peaceful means if possible, but by force if necessary
containment doctrine
a slow transformation from conflict thinking to cooperative thinking in foreign policy strategy and policymaking
detente
an alliance of the major Western European nations that coordinates monetary, trade, immigration, and labor policies, making its members one economic unit
European Union
a policy that involves choice-taking, but additionally involves choices about relations with the rest of the world
foreign policy
mutual dependency, in whig the actions of nations reverberate and affect one another’s economic lifelines
interdependency
a nongovernmental organization established in 1944 to help stabilize the international monetary system, improve economic growth, and aid developing nations
International monetary fund
a foreign policy course followed throughout most of our nation’s history, whereby the United States has tried to stay out of other nations’ conflicts, particularly European wards
isolationism
the commanding officers of the armed services who advise the president on military policy
joint chiefs of staff
an agreement between Canada, the United States, and Mexico to create a trilateral trade bloc, eliminating barrios to free trade between the three countries
North American Free Trade Agreement
Created in 1945, an organization whose members include the United States, Canada, most Western European nations, and Turkey, all of whom agreed to combine military forces and to treat a war against one as a war against all
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
a trade penalty that one nation places on another to encourage the penalized nation to change its actions or policies
sanction
a defense plan against Soviet nuclear weapons unveiled by President Reagan in 1983
Strategic Defense Initiative
a special tax added to imported goods to raise the price, thereby protecting American businesses and workers from foreign competition
tariff
created in 1945, an organization whose members agreed to renounce war and to respect certain human and economic freedoms
United Nations (General Assembly and Security Council)
a government’s legitimacy and moral right to use state power is only justified and legal when agreed to by the people or society over which that political power is exercised
consent of the governed
the principle that the authority of a state and its government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, through their elected representatives
popular sovereignty
persons’ moral and/or political obligations are dependent upon an agreement among them to form the society in which they live
social contract theory
