Vineyard Management Flashcards
What does site suitability depend on?
Water, climate, type and quality of soil, access to site, labor availability
Name an example of nutrient deficient soil
Sandy soil in high rainfall area - deficient in K calcium and SO2
Frequently cultivated shallow soils in low rainfall - low N
How many grape varieties are there?
8000 Winkler, wild and table
1400 Jancis commercial
What predetermines the style and quality of a wine most?
Genetic characteristics of the grape
Climatically, where do grapes produce their best iterations?
At the coolest margin of viable ripening
What is the calculation for planting density?
Per hectare, number of rows x number of vines in each row
Is there a direct correlation between high density planting and quality?
No. Though it increases the total leaf surface in a vineyard
What determines vine balance?
Vigor
Planting density
Fertility of soil
Training system
How does soil fertility correlate with density?
Poorer soil = higher root density Poorer soil = lower vigor Poorer soil = higher density UNLESS low water Fertile soil = high vigor =low density
How should alleys between rows be considered?
Alleys should never be narrower than the heights of the row canopy (so as not to cast shade on other fruiting areas)
BUT more costly
How to calculate distance between vines on a row
15 shoots per meter
Wider alleys = greater distance between plants bc wider alleys =more vigor since more soil space available
(More soil space means more trellis space)
What is row orientation influenced by?
Shape of field
Direction of slope
Wind
Orientation for cool climate vineyards?
North south =maximize sunlight in autumn
When did vines begin to be oriented and trellised in Europe?
After phylloxera
Why have elaborate trellising systems?
Control vine vigor and disease
What to consider when deciding on trellising system?
Legislation Geography Canopy surface/ha Cost and time of establishment and maintenance Mechanisation potential Popularity and attractiveness
What kind of trellis system might a vintner use at the bottom of a hill?
Higher one to escape frost
What is a bush vine? Why use it and where? Disadvantages?
Trained short with no trellis Common in warmer Mediterranean Low cost and low production Spur pruned Basket = cane pruned
Good:
Bunch shade
Maintenance costs low
Bad:
Yields (low planting density)
Less air circulation (disease)
All manual
What are staked vines? Positives/negatives/where? How high are they trained? How are they trained?
Vines tied to a single post
Low density planting
Good:
Can be trained higher = simpler vineyard operations
Greater air circulation
Bad:
Lower yield
Not good for high vigor sites
How:
Form a crown 20-30cm above ground and 2-4 canes fixed to stake
OR spur pruned without crown
Cote Rotie, southern France, Spain, Portugal, others (new world)
Why is single wire better than bush?
Forms a continuous row
Inexpensive to install and train
How are single wire systems trained?
Cordon and spur or head and cane
Cordon:
Trunk divided 15cm below wire and permanent horizontal cordon.
Head/cane:
Crown established below wire and up to 4 canes of 10 to 15 nodes along the wire, with two to four 2 node replacement spurs
Problem:
Shoots hang down so fruit isn’t protected
Two-wire vertical - style and advantages
Single fruiting wire and single foliage water .3-.5 above
Suited to mechanical pruning and harvesting
What is the name for two-wire vertical in California?
California sprawl
Where is VSP used? Why? Advantages/disadvantages?
France, Germany, cooler Australia, New Zealand
Used in areas with high fungal disease risk - keeps foliage off the ground
Also simplified mechanical operations (foliage in one area and fruit in another
Suitable for mechanization
Has movable foliage wires
Disadvantage:
High Shoot density = prone to shade
Bad for high vigor varieties and sites
(Divided canopy helps)
How is VSP trained and pruned?
Cane pruned or spur pruned on unilateral or bilateral cordons
What are the two main vertical divided systems?
Scott-Henry and Smart-Dyson
How does the Scott Henry system work?
Developed in Oregon, trialled in NZ and Australia (New World, machine harvest) Two fruiting wires (1 m and 1.15 m) 2m tall Top foliage = between two movable wires Bottom foliage = positioned downwards Cane pruning Machine harvesting
How does the Smart-Dyson system work?
Same as the Scott Henry system but cordon trained
Spurs point upwards and downwards = two canopies
Machine pruning and harvesting
Why are Scott Henry and Smart-Dyson superior to VSP?
Increased canopy surface = more photosynthesis and yield
Shoot density is halved = increased fruit exposure
De-vigorating effect because shoots are trained downwards
What is Guyot? Who invented it?
Replacement cane pruning system. Either single or double
Jules Guyot, 1860s
Name some examples of multi-wired horizontal trellis systems
Geneva Double curtain, U or lyre, overhead pergola
What is Geneva Double Curtain?
Horizontally divided with shoots trained downwards
At least 1m apart and 1m in length
Cordon/spur pruned
Good: Improve yield of quality fruit composition in vigorous soils Reduces shading Can be pruned and harvested by machine Devigorates
Used in Australia, Cali, Italy
What is the U-shaped or lyre trellis?
Developed in France
Used in Cali, NZ, Australia cool, Chile, Uruguay
Designed for medium to high vigor sites
Horizontally divided trellise with shoots trained upwards
Good:
Open canopy (yield and grape quality)
Macine pre pruned
Has specific harvester
Bad:
U needs to be open for leaf and fruit exposure
Cost of maintenance
What is the pergola system?
AKA tendone Overhead Productive system Trunks are 2m high Cane or spur pruned
Bad:
High construction and labor costs
Not good for high vigor sites (shading issues, powdery mildew and botrytis)
Timing of vineyard planting prep
Summer: remove existing vegetation and optionals
Autumn: Corrective fertilization, deep ploughing (20-60cm)
Spring: Deep cultivation, tracing out plantation (making sure straight), planting
What are the optional things to do when removing existing vegetation?
Level subsoil (dips can cause water to accumulate)
Assess erosion risk and plant trees, dig ditches, etc
Break up subsoil at 50-100cm
Soil tests to assess nutrient deficiencies (Can increase organic matter content above 2% by adding farmyard manure)
Increase pH above 6.5
Disinfect soil (kill nematodes) or leave soil fallow for 5-8 yrs
How would you increase a soil’s pH?
Use calcite (calcium carbonate), magnesite (magnesium carbonate), or dlomite
What compound can be used to improve structure?
Gypsum - reduces dispersion of surface soils
Why plough a vineyard site?
Bury existing vegetation, incorporate fertilizers, and increase aeration/drainage, expose large roots
What does drainage do?
Makes sure water runs off surface, taken by roots, absorbed into soil particle pores, evaporates from soil, drains down
How to improve drainage?
Add manure, organic matter, sand, grit, or lime
Ditches (cheapest)
Drainage pipes - usually plastic and perforated
Mole drainage (used on clay subsoil) - forms cylindrical channel in subsoil
Sub-soiling
Why terrace a vineyard
If the slope is over 20% - retaining walls are made of grass or stone. Expensive
When is best to plant rooted cuttings?
ASAP but wait until spring frost is over. Latest: July
How to protect rooted cuttings if not ready for planting?
Keep them in a dark cool place in plastic bags or buckets of water. Prevent drying
Why use plastic mulching?
No stake No risk of drought no weed competition Soil structure maintained Soil temp increased OVERALL: YOUNG PLANTS GROW FASTER, can gain a year
What are the disadvantages of plastic mulching?
Expense Frost risk Weeds Slugs, mice, snakes Arduous disposal of plastic Superficial rooting
How to care for young plants
Watering Weed control (compete for space) Rabbit protection Slug and snail protection Wind protection Disease protection Tying up and summer pruning (remove flowers and shoots) Replace unsuccessful vines
What happens if a vine is unpruned
Many short shoots further and further away from trunk
Irregular yiels
Many small bunches of high acid low sugar berries
How does pruning affect shoot size?
More buds = weaker individual vigor = shorter shoots = smaller leaf area
How should a vintner balance crop level and leaf area?
High crop + short shoots = over-cropping = high yields of bad fruit
Low crop + vigorous shoots = shoots growing too long, detriment to fruit and too much shading
Why prune?
Organize plant for maximum light
Organize plant for machines without damage
Avoid leaf bunching = reduce disease risk and increase quality/yield
What are the specs for an ideal canopy?
15 shoots/meter
Homogenous
1-1.5 leaf thickness
How is a vine’s vigor calculated?
The weight of the wood produced in one year
Why winter pruning?
Balance fruit and leaf area (depends on yield and quality desired)
What is an ideal fruit/leaf vine balance for a shoot with moderate yield?
12-15 nodes long shoot pencil thick
Internodal length 60mm
How to calculate how many budes to leave on a vine at winter pruning
Count how many ideal shoots were produced last year
Or remove most canes from vine, weigh them, and divide weight by 30-40
More buds in youth and only 5-15% in mature vines
What is canopy management?
Organization of shoots, leaves, and fruit to maximise quality of microclimate
Impt in cool climate regions and in New World (to curb vigor)
What happens when vines are too shaded?
Rate of respiration outstrips that of photosynthesis so leaf consumes rather than produces energy
What happens with shaded flowers on a vine?
Lower rates of successful fertilization and fruit set. Higher risk of fungal diseases
What to look for when diagnosing canopy management
Leaf layer number (aka thickness) Percentage of exposed grape clusters Leaf size/color Presence of lateral shoots Presence of shoot tips growing
Which viticulturalist did a lot of research into canopy management?
Richard Smart
What are Smart’s classifications of vineyard sites? What are the proper trellising systems?
High potential/vigor: deep ( >1m)fertile soils, good water supply, high nutrient levels. Generally accepted to have low density (<3000plants/ha) and complex training systems
Medium potential/vigor: (.5m-1m) medium deep soils, adequate water, average fertility (3k-5k plants/ha), lyre, Scott Henry, large VSP
Low potential/vigor: (less than .5m deep), poor water availability during growing season, low fertility. high density (>5k plants/ha). VSP if sufficient water.
Is high vigor or low vigor harder to manage?
High vigor
What might cause low vigor sites? Solutions?
Drought stress (Irrigation)
Low soil fertility (Increased fertilization, drainage, organic matter)
Disease (Diagnosis and treatment)
How to fix high vigor issues?
Select low vigor rootstocks
Increase water stress in irrigated vineyards
Cover cropping in alleys
High density plantings (only works in low vigor sites like BDX)
Remove alternate vines along the row (reduces shoot vigor and canopy density)
Root pruning (Difficult to predict)
Retro-fit a more complex system
Pinching (Remove select shoot tips around flowering)
Shoot positioning, trimming, leaf stripping, crop thinning, green harvesting
What kind of grape might use minimal or zero winter pruning? What happens?
Thompson seedless grapes in Australia
Eventually begin to self regulate
How does guyot work?
Cane pruned system with one or more replacement spurs
Spur buds produce shoots that can be used as canes the following year
Single = 1 spur and 1 cane
Double = 2 spurs and 2 canes
Vine must be planted with straight position
What is the main advantage of replacement cane pruning? Main disadvantage?
Limits carbohydrate reserves to control vine vigor (less old wood)
Requires great skill, no mechanisation
How are the cane and spur selected for guyot?
Spur first
Should be closer to trunk than cane
Cane shold be further and should be able to be tied down
Where do vines grow most vigorously?
At extremeties
What is pendelbogen?
Arching the cane upside down to regulate shoot growth
V common
What is spur pruning without cordon called?
Bush or head trained vines
How is a cordon/spur trained system started?
Cane is tied to the fruiting wire to become permanent wood
Canes coming off of this wood are spur-pruned
What is the most common cordon/spur system?
Cordon de Royat: single/double horizontal cordon with shoots vertically trained
How are the Sylvoz and Lenz-Moser systems usuallu pruned?
Cordon/spur
How are “big vine” systems like GDC usually pruned?
Cordon/spur
What are the advantages/disadvantages of cordon systems?
Easier to prune
Pre-pruned mechanically
More carb reserves (better for frost-risk areas)
More vigorous
Loss of growing points along cordon (better to keep cordons short)
What does a cane with a double bud indicate?
Viruses
Which buds are the most fruitful
The ones on the cane formed in the previous year
How big must a pruning wound be for it not to heal properly?
Over 30 mm in diameter
not good
What is best if larger pruning cuts have to be made?
Leave a short stump that can be cut back following winter
What does earlier pruning encourage?
Earlier budbreak - increases risk of spring frost damage
Worries for later budbreak are there too - takes longer to tie down canes
What does trimming off shoot extremities do? when does it start?
Controls excess growth and facilitates passage of manpower and machinery, reduces shading and wind damage
Reduce canopy thickness
Encourage onset of maturity by discouraging competition
Aesthetically pleasing
Starts in July after last tucking in
What is shoot positioning? When should you do it?
Shoot removal, bud-rubbing and tucking in
After risk of frost but before flowering
Why would a vine shoot be removed?
Badly positioned
Too close to the ground
Rootstock shoots
Too much canopy shade (15 shoots/meter of trellis)
How long does it take to do shoot positioning?
17-50 hours/ha
What is bud rubbing?
Removal of a potential undesirable shoot before it has a chance to grow.
What does leaf stripping do? When is it done?
Between veraison and harvest Improve canopy microclimate (quality and health) Improve spray penetration Increase speed of manual harvesting 70hrs/ha
Why green harvest? When?
Encourage ripening
Conform to legal yield requirements
Get young vine established
Around veraison (too early =increased berry size, too late = no effect bc sugar is already in berry)
Which bunches are usually removed in green harvest?
Bunches on laterals and nearest shoot tips
By hand
50 hours/ha
What is the ideal soil texture?
Loam texture. Can’t do anything i achieve it
Where do macronutrients exist in the largest quantities?
Plant tissue (.2 to 3% of dry weight)
What deficiencies cause chlorosis? How can you tell?
Iron Nitrogen Magnesium Sulfur Yellowing of foliage
What does nitrogen deficiency do?
Chlorosis
Reduced vigor
Smaller leaves and shoots
What does potassium deficiency do?
Older leaves first
White varieties become yellow
Red varieties become red
Uneven ripening
What does phosphorous deficiency do?
Reduction in shoot growth, reduced fruit set. Red spots
What are the macronutrients?
Nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium
Which macronutrients are rarely lacking?
Calcium and sulfur
What does magnesium deficiency do?
Yellowing between veins for whites and reddening for reds
What does iron deficiency do?
yellowing of leaves
What does maganese deficiency do?
Yellowing between veins
What does zinc deficiency do?
Little lead symptoms
What is a petiole
A stalk that joins a leaf to a stem
What deficiences might affect vine performance without showing symptoms?
Magnesium and sinc
How often is soil analysis conducted?
Every 2-3 years
Why isn’t pre-fertilizing used for nitrogen?
High level of mineralisation of organic matter and nitrogen’s high mobility
What nutrients are important to balance?
Mg v Fe
N v K
Mn v Fe
When are P and K added? when is N added?
P/K: fall
N: spring
What are the pros and cons of organic soil?
Pros: Can be free or cheap High in humus (soil structure and water retention) Soil aeration and organisms Slow release
Cons:
Bulky
Need to be incorporates into the soil
What are the main formats of organic fertilizer?
Farmyard manure
Slurry or ceral straws
Cover crop (ie: white mustard, leguminous crops like vetch)
Foliar fertilizers (good for nutrients that might otherwise be immobilised in sooil)
What are the pros and cons of weeds?
Pros Prevent soil erosion Prevent nitrate leeching Biodiversity Reduce vine vigor Soil structure Warning of diseases
Cons Competition for water and nutrients Smother aerial parts of vine Machinery and personnel hampered Frost risk Pests and diseases Not pretty
What are the main methods of weed control
Cultivation
Ground cover
Herbicides
Mulching
Other: Animals. Flame weeding
What is cultivation?
Controls weeds
In autumn, ridge soil up under row. In spring, de-ridge it back to the center. don’t do it too much to preserve soil structure
Good: Effective Efficient than fertilizers Decrease compaction Protect trunks against cold Favors deep root development
Bad:
Only lasts for a little (increases weed germination)
When are cover crops best sown?
Autumn.
Gaining popularity in low density high mechanised vineyards
What types of herbicides can be used in a vineyard?
Pre-emergence herbicides (apply before budburst, inhibit photosynthesis in young seedlings)
Contact herbicides (absorbed through green organs - temporary effect in well established root systems)
Systemic herbicides (absorbed through leaves. In sap. Destroy whole plant. Slow acting. Use after leaf fall.)
How does mulching work?
Spread matter onto soil to suppress weeds by restricting access to light.
What types of mulches are usedful?
high carbon nitrogen ration (straw paper woodchip) on vigorous plants
Higher nutrients (mushrooms, manures) on poor growth
Deeper reduce soil moisture
Organic = earthworms = waterlogged areas
What types of irrigation may be used?
Flood, sprinkler, drip, deficit
How does flood irrigation work?
Fed from a supply canal and run down rows. Common in Argentina
Needs: Lots of water Flat slope Low cost high labor Not as efficient Infrequent
Pros/cons of sprinklers
Wasteful of water
Could cause runoff and erosion
Good at preventing frost
Fungus
Pros/cons of under-canopy systems
Leaky hose or sprinkler or microjet
High level of management bc of blockages
Machines could damage
Drip systems
Each vine has a plastic dripper
Expensive to install
What is a controlled deficit and why is it good/bad?
Mild water stress
Good during the ripening phase
Restrains vegetative growth
What is regulated deficit irrigation?
Developed in Australia
Controls growth in order to increase quality
Deficit applied between fruit set and a month after veraison
not advised for very hot regions
What is partial rootzone drying?
Controls vigor and maintains wine quality
Half of the root system should always be in a dry or drying state
Alternated on a 10-14 day cycle
What are the major pests in vineyards?
Viruses
Phytoplasmas (small bacteria without cell walls)
Bacteria
Fungi
Nematodes (unsegmented parasitic or free living roundworms)
Arthropods (segmented invertebrates - spider mites, grapevine moths, phylloxera, leafhoppers, cicadelles)
Vertebrates
Weeds
What are the different pest management philosophies
Prescriptive
Reasoned pest control (lutte raisonee)
Integrated pest management
Powdery mildew: what is it, effects, and treatments
Oidium - Fungus
Introduced in 1800s
Damages the young green parts of the vine (leaves curl, develop dull grey patches with cobweb patches. berries are covered in grey/white fuzz snd drop off)
Can be spread by wind
Doesn’t like bright sunshine
Doesn’t need rain to germinate, just shade and humidity
Prominent in warm, cloudy but not rainy summers with humid microclimate
Treatments:
Sulfure sprays prevent, stop, and cure it
Better to prevent at bud burst
DMIs can be used as they penetrate into green tissue (can become resistant)
Downy mildew: what is it, effects, and treatments
Peronospora - Fungus
Lives IN vine tissue not on top
Damages green parts of plant.
Yellow oil spots on leaf, white downy patches on underside
Leaves fall off
Flowers can fall ooff
Berries go grey then brown and dried
Needs rainfall and warm temps
Happens in rainy winters, springs, and stormy war summers
Treatments
Reduce leaf bunching (canopy mgmt) controls
Copper salts pesticides are preventative, before rains
Grey rot: what is it, effects, and treatments
Same as Botrytis - Fungus
Found in plant debris, can be parasitic
Needs high humidity and warmth
Enters through wound
Produces enzymes that break down plant tissue and cause it to brown
mostly attacks leaves (grey fuzz) and berries
Berries become brown and sensistive skin
Entire bunch usually
Prevention is key (hard to treat)
Use broad spectrum fungicides
Spray at flowering, berry set, bunch closure, veraison, befor eharvest
Botrytis: what is it, effects, and treatments
Grapes should be kepy healthy until 7% potential ABv has formed in grape
Lilac skin
If rainfall before harvest = develop into grey rot instead
Mites: what is it, effects, and treatments
Arachnids tiny
Feed on green parts of vine, esp leaves
Can winter in buds or bark and lay eggs in spring
Sulfur sprays
Predatory mites
Miticides in summer
Species:
Red spider mite
Yellow spider mite
Eutypa dieback: what is it, effects, and treatments
Dead Arm - Fungus
SE Australia, Califonria, SW france, SAfrica
Fungus enters pruning wounds Blocks and kills water conducting tissue Not in young vineyards Stunted shoots, small yellow leaves Yield loweres
Replace vine or train a healthy shoot to replace
Control with hygeine
Fanleaf virus: what is it, effects, and treatments
Virus
Shoot growth malformed with double nodes, short internode, zigzag, distorted leaves (look like fans and yellow veins)
Small bunches with poor fruit set, millerandange = 80% reduction in yield
Worsens over time (Cab Sauv)
Spread by infected material
No cure
Leafroll virus: what is it, effects, and treatments
Most widespread grapevine disease
Autumn: red and yellow leaves with rolled edges
Reduces yield by 50% and sugar by 30%, weaker wines
Infected material
Mealybugs
No cure
Grape moths: what is it, effects, and treatments
Larvae mostly damage the vines Light brown apple moth European berry moth Grape berry moth Feed on foliage and bunches and open wounds Natural enemies, insecticides
What temperatures harm a vine after budburst?
under 0C
What training systems can reduce frost
High wire systems
Geneva Double Curtain
How do fans and windmills help? How many?
Mix the cold air near vines with warm air above. Permanent = 1/6-8ha, moveable = 1/4ha
What are some examples of wind breaks?
Artificial: mobile structures
Natural: Must be planted ahead of time, twiggy trees
Crop should be within 10x the height
What are some preventative hail measures?
Explosive rockets that instigate rain with iodide
Towers with static electricity to divert thunderstomrs
Netting
What are some major vineyard hazards
Excess rain Drought Hail Wind Frost
When did viticulture start using agrochemicals? What was used prior?
1950s
Before: sulfur and copper, manure
Are synthetic agrochemicals allowed in integrated viticulture?
YEs, but encouraged to monitor vineyards and only use when needed
What are some principles of integrated viticulture?
Reduce chemicals
Establish green cover in higher precipitation areas
Balance growth and yield and enable sunlight
Ventilate canopy
Conserve soil quality
Irrigation only when needed
International Organization for Biological Control
Who regulates organic viticulture?
International federation of Organic Agriculture Movements from 1991
What is the Bordeaux mixture
A fungicide containing copper sulfate and calcium oxide
What are two biodynamic preparations?
Horn manure 500
-Cow dung is placed in a cow horn and buried over winter. Also sprayed 2-4 times throughout year
All about the soil
HOrn silica (501)
-Finely ground silica is placed in a cow horn and buried over summer - energized by sun
-Improves photosynthesis
Encourage strengthening against fungal and insect attack
What is the limit of Bordeaux mixture for biodynamic wineries?
3kg/ha per year
