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BLGY1124 > Verterbates and Speciation > Flashcards

Verterbates and Speciation Flashcards

1
Q

Synamorphy

Definition

A

a common feature shared by all descendants of a common ancestor after a divergence

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2
Q

Chordates

Subcategories

A
  • Vertebrates
  • Invertebrate:
  • Cephalochordates (Lancelets)
  • Urochordata (Tunicates)
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3
Q

Chordates

Common Characteristics

A
  • notochord (stiffened material down centre that allows movement
  • dorsal, hollow nerve cord
  • postanal tail
  • pharygeal slits
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4
Q

Cephalochordates

A
  • notochord down centre

- move left to right

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5
Q

Urochordata

A

-suck water through body

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6
Q

Vertebrates

Common Characteristics

A
  • Vertebral Column, tube of hollow bones that enclose and protect the dorsal nerve chord
  • Head/Cephalisation, distinct and well differentiated head with skull and brain
  • Neural Crest, unique group of embryonic cells that contribute to development of spinal chord
  • Internal Organs, liver kidneys ane endocrine system
  • Closed Circulatory System
  • Efficient Respiration and Excretion
  • Paired Appendages
  • Endoskeleton
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7
Q

Crown Group Vertebrates

A
  • sharks
  • ray-finned fish
  • amphibians
  • primates
  • rodents and rabbits
  • crocodiles
  • dinosaurs and birds
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8
Q

Fish

Subcategories

A
  • jawless
  • cartilaginous
  • bony
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9
Q

Fish

Common Characteristics

A
  • Gills, as water passes over the gills it hits fine filaments of blood vessels into which oxygen diffuses
  • Vertebral Column, internal skeleton with a spine that surrounds the dorsal nerve chord
  • Single-Loop Blood Circulation, blood pumped from heart to gills to rest of the body and back to the heart
  • Nutritional Deficiencies, unable to synthesise aromatic amino acids so must consume them in their diet
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10
Q

Jawless Fish

A
  • agnathens
  • lack bony skeleton
  • cylindrical shape
  • scavengers (hagfish) OR filter feeders (lampreys)
  • parasitic lampreys attatch to the sides of bony fish and suck nutrients from the host circulatory system
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11
Q

Cartilaginous Fish

A
  • skeleton made of cartilage not bone
  • superior design for swimming
  • array of fins (cadval, dorsal, ventral & front pectoral and rear pelvic pair)
  • 3 well developed senses (sense electric currents, smell, pressure sensitive cells on insides of body)
  • advanced reproduction
  • some shark eggs are internally fertilised
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12
Q

Bony Fish

A
  • evolved in freshwater
  • highly mobile fins
  • symmetrical tails
  • lobe finned and ray finned fish arose from bony fish
  • swim bladder, for buoyancy it keeps fish suspended at any depth (in modern fish it is an independent organ that is filled/drained of gas from the blood)
  • Lateral Line System, fully developed series of sensory organs to aid orientation and detection of objects
  • Gill Cover, hard plate/operculum covers gills on each side/head used to pump water over gills while stationary
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13
Q

Amphibia

Evolution

A
  • direct descendants of lobe finned fish
  • most numerous land animals
  • 3 orders:
  • Anura (frogs & toads)
  • Caduata (salamanders & newts)
  • Gymnophiona/Caecilians (no legs)
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14
Q

Amphibia

Common Characteristics

A
  • Legs, apart from caecilians which have adapted for burrowing
  • Cutaneous Respiration, respiration through the skin supplements lungs & limits body size
  • Lungs, pair of lungs they breathe by lowering the mouth and raising it back up to force in air
  • Pulmonary Veins & Partially Divide Heart, splits blood circulation into two paths
  • Metamorphosis, adaptation to water or land environment
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15
Q

Reptiles

Evolution

A
  • evolved from amphibian
  • legs arranged to support body weight increasing efficiency
  • lungs and heart altered
  • skin covered with dry scales
  • eggs encased in water tight covers
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16
Q

Reptiles

Common Characteristics

A
  • Amniotic eggs, watertight & contains food & a series of 4 membranes making the egg an independent life support system
  • Dry Skin, scales prevent water loss and develop as surface cells fill with keratin
  • Thoracic Breathing, expand & contract rib cage to suck in/force out air from lungs capacity is limited by lung volume
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17
Q

Birds

Evolution

A
  • similar to reptiles

- BUT many say that they evolved from dinosaurs

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18
Q

Birds

Common Characteristics

A
  • Feathers, modified reptilian scales provide lift for flying and insulation
  • Flight Skeleton, thin hollowed out bones many of which are fused together forming a sturdy frame to anchor muscles during flight
  • Breast Muscles, 30% of body weight to provide strength for flight
  • Efficient Respiration
  • Efficient Circulation, dividing wall in the heart is complete
  • Endothermy, 40-42C body temperature
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19
Q

Mammals

Evolution

A

emerged 220mya

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20
Q

Mammals

Subcategories

A
  • Monotremes, egg laying
  • Marsupials, young born early in development and complete growth in the pouch
  • Placental, lack pouches and suckle young
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21
Q

Mammals

Common Characteristics

A
  • Hair, key for heat regulation and fur allowed invasion into colder climates / camouflage
  • Milk Producing Glands, allows mammal to suckle young
  • Endothermic, can be active at day or night
  • Placenta, females carry young in the uterus during development
  • Teeth, heterodont dentition specialised to eating habits
  • Digestive System for Eating Plants, herbivores can’t break down cellulose so rely on a mutualistic relationship with intestinal bacteria with a cellulose digesting enzyme
  • Horns and Hooves, made of keratin
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22
Q

What are the three main mechanisms of speciation?

A
  • polyploidy
  • allopatric/geographic
  • sympatric/ecological
23
Q

Allopatric/Geographic Speciation

A
  • one population
  • part of the population moves to a different area
  • gene flow between the two groups ceases
  • OR the population can be separated by a barrier e.g. a river preventing gene flow between the two groups
24
Q

Ring Species Concept

A
  • allopatric
  • species expands around an area of unsuitable habitat
  • as the species spreads around the ring it evolves over time
  • all around the ring, adjacent variations of the species are able to interbreed
  • but when the end of the ring reaches the beginning again the species has changed so much that it can no longer interbreed with the original species
25
Q

Karyological Revolution

A

change in karyotype

26
Q

Karyotype

A

number of chromosomes in the somatic cell

27
Q

Speciation by Polyploidy

A
  • two species interbreed producing a largely sterile hybrid
  • the two original species cannot interbreed with the hybrid
  • if the hybrid is fertilised it can reproduce, a new species
28
Q

Speciation by Polyploidy

Example

A 
-wild sea cabbage (18n) 
wild sea cabbage gamete (9n)
-turnip (20n)
-turnip gamete (10n)
-turnip + cabbage = hybrid (19n)
-fertilisation of hybrid -> swede (38n)
29
Q

Sympatry/Parapatry

A

-a reproductive barrier arises (i.e. speciation occurs) eventhough gene flow between the two populations remains possible

30
Q

Ecological Speciation

A
  • different members of the same population adapt to occupy different niches in the same habitat
  • as they become specialised a hybrid of the two groups is out competed in both niches by the two groups as it isn’t optimised for either niche
  • hybrids don’t survive to reproduce so the two groups continue to breed independently and evolve independently
31
Q

Speciation

Definition

A

the formation of a new species

32
Q

The Biological Species Concept

A

focus on reproductive isolation

i.e. a species is defined as a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring

33
Q

Reproductive Isolation

Pre-Mating

A

-individuals may meet but don’t mate

34
Q

Reproductive Isolation

Post-Mating, Pre-Zygotic

A
  • no sperm transfer
  • gamete incompatibility
  • gamete isolation
35
Q

Reproductive Isolation

Post-Mating, Post-Zygotic

A
  • F1 inviability / infertility

- F1 sterility

36
Q

Speciation and Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

A
  • undermines the stability of species
  • populations can be observed at different stages of speciation
  • this makes the identification of species arbitrary/subjective as the organisms that make up the species are always changing
37
Q

Social Learning

A
  • learning influenced by observation of / interaction with another individual or its products
  • learning facilitated by observation of / interaction with another individual or its products
38
Q

Demonstrator

A

the individual being learnt from

39
Q

Observer

A

the individual who is learning

40
Q

Social Transmission

A

the acquisition of a behavioural trait T by an individual A, exerts a positive causal influence on the rate at which another individual B acquires/performs T

41
Q

Imitation

A
  • (broad sense) copying anothers behaviour
  • (narrow sense) observe the body movements of another individual and replicate them exactly to produce the same behaviour, i.e. to learn to do an act from seeing it done
42
Q

Culture

A

-group level behaviour patterns shared by members of a community that rely on socially learned and transmitted behaviours

43
Q

When is it advantageous for animals to learn from others?

A
  • depends on the rate of environmental change:
  • -slow - unlearned behaviour
  • -moderate - social learning
  • -fast - asocial learning, as information becomes outdated so quickly it cant be passed on fast enough to be useful before the environment changes again
44
Q

Core Methodology

Studying in the Field

A
  • high validity
  • low reliability and control
  • uncontrolled conditions
  • actual behaviour
45
Q

Core Methodology

Lab Experiment

A
  • high reliability and control

- low validity

46
Q

Traditional Demonstrator Observer Paradigm

A
  • observer placed with demonstrator during observation phase
  • then during the test phase the observer is observed alone to see if they exhibit the behaviour
  • as a control, an observer is also placed with a demonstrator that doesn’t perform the behaviour, this observer is then also observed in the observation phase
47
Q

Traditional - Multiple Demonstrators

A
  • one observer sees multiple demonstrators performing the behaviour
  • sometimes animals are more likely to learn a behaviour if they see multiple demonstrators doing it
48
Q

Traditional - Multiple Observers

A

-multiple observers can learn a behaviour from the same demonstrator

49
Q

Linear Transmission Chain

A
  • behaviour passed along a chain of individuals

- first observer becomes demonstrator for the second observer etc.

50
Q

Replacement Transmission Chain

A
  • start with a group of demonstrators
  • one observer introduced and learns the behaviour
  • one of the original demonstrators is replaced with a new observer
  • this continues until there are no original observers left nut the group is stlll able to complete the behaviour
51
Q

What does an observer have to do to imitate?

A
  • solve the correspondence problem

- translating observation into motor movement

52
Q

Local Enhancement

A
  • similar to imitation but not the same
  • after/during a demonstrators presence/interaction with objects at a particular location, an observer is more likely to visit that area and then learn the behaviour itself as a result rather than copying
53
Q

Open Diffusion

A
  • one original demonstrator in the population

- behaviour spreads through the population with initial observers becoming demonstrators

54
Q

Two Action Test

A

FINISH SOCIAL LEARNING CARDS

BLGY1124 (8 decks)

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