Verbal Reasoning Flashcards
PALAVRAS INDICADORAS DE PREMISSAS
Because ; Since ; For ; For Example ; For The Reason That; In That; Given That; As indicated By; Due To; Owing To
PALAVRAS INDICADORAS DE CONCLUSÃO
Thus; Therefore; Hence; Consequently; As a Result; So; Accordingly; Clearly; Shows That; Follows That
PALAVRAS INDICADORAS DE CONTRA-PREMISSAS
But; Yet; However; Despite; Admittedly; In Contrast; Although; Even Though; Still; Whereas
Verb To Be
I am/WAS
You are/WERE
He is/WAS
She is/WAS
It is/WAS
We are/WERE
You are/WERE
They are/WERE
Stimulus
Geralmente é a parte mais densa e extensa da questão. Nesse contexto não devemos assumir nada. Toda informação necessária já está no stimulus e precisamos ficar atentos para não trazermos informações de fora, principalmente se conhecemos sobre o assunto
Tipos de Stimuli
Argumentativas e Factuais
Argumentos Complexos
A -> B -> C .
São os casos que temos uma conclusão intermediária
Contrapremissas
São usadas em argumentações mais sofisticadas. É possível que o autor mencione premissas que à primeira vista trabalham contra a conclusão apontada. Esse movimento busca antecipar algumas objeções que serão apresentadas pelos oponentes.
Validade X Invalidade dos Argumentos
Um argumento pode ser válido ainda que as informações contidas sejam não verdades, isto é, se eu possuo premissas que conduzem a uma clara conclusão, podemos dizer que é um Argumento Válido (ainda que as informações dessas premissas possam não ser verdadeiras)
Question Stem em Critical Reasoning
É a “pergunta” logo após o Stimulus e que nos dá uma tarefa de fazer uma conexão lógica entre o Stimulus e as Answer Choices.
10 Tipos de Questão no CR - Question Stem
São divididas em 2 principais Grupo: Prove e Help/Hurt
Prove :
1) Inference
2) Provide the Conclusion
3) Method of Reasoning
4) Flaw in the Reasoning
5) Parallel Reasoning
Help/Hurt:
1) Assumption
2) Strengthen the argument
3) Weaken the Argument
4) Resolve the Paradox
5) Evaluate the Argument
Tipo de Questão “Prove”
São questões nas quais as informações do Stimulus de alguma forma “provam” algo que está em uma das Answer Choices.
São os tipos mais “rígidos”, uma vez que o Stimulus é a base do raciocínio, qualquer resposta com uma “nova” informação estará errada.
É algo mais Top - > Down
Tipo de Questão “Help/Hurt”
São questões que fazem o caminho inverso. São as Answer Choices que vão, de alguma forma, “provar” ou “apoiar” (ou até contradizer/questionar”) as informações contidas no Stimulus. Dessa forma, é perfeitamente aceitável que as Answer possuam novas informações
É algo mais Bottom -> UP
Noun
São os Substantivos. Servem para dar nomes às coisas.
Existem vários tipos: Common & Proper Nouns ; Countable & Non-Countable Nouns; Collective Nouns; Possessive Nouns
Common & Proper Nouns
Proper Nouns: São os nomes específicos de pessoas, lugares, animais ou objetos (Ex: Sandra, Brasil, Bob,etc)
Common Nouns: São usados para classes genéricas de pessoas, lugares, animais ou objetos (Ex: pessoa, país, cão)
Countable & Non-Countable Nouns
Countable Nouns: Possuem singular e plural e são substantivos que podemos contar (Ex: one dog, two dogs, etc)
Non-Countable Nouns: São substantivos que não conseguimos contar (Ex: oxygen, water, money, love,etc)
Modifiers for Countable Nouns
Few
Many; Several
Number
Numerous; Multiple; Various
Modifiers for Uncountable Nouns
Little; Less
Much
Amount
Uso do WHICH após a vírgula
Quando temos uma sentença na qual o Which vem após a vírgula USUALMENTE o Which irá se referir a palavra imediatamente anterior ou ao bloco imediatamente anterior
Uso do “TO” após a vírgula
Muitas vezes indica INTENÇÃO. Isto é, precisamos ler a frase como se houvesse a INTENÇÃO de tal coisa
Verbo no -ING após a vírgula
Quando temos um verbo no -ING logo após a vírgula ele se refere à AÇÃO que estava ocorrendo logo antes a vírgula
How to Spot a Noun
Try to use the “a” or “the” in front of the word
Nouns from Adjectives
Usually they are QUALITIES
Ex: Cleanliness ; fluidity ; etc
*They can come from other categories (verbs, etc)
Adjective in Compound Noun
Sometimes we see two nouns together. They are Compound nouns.
In essence, the FIRST noun becomes and ADJECTIVE
Ex: Kitchen Sink ;Love Poem ; Dog Collar
Measuring Countable Nouns
Many; Few; More; Fewer
Measuring Uncountable Nouns
We usy counting units (pieces, slices, grams, etc) or by using
Much; Little; More; Less
Subject Pronouns
They perform actions, represented by verbs.
Ex: He ate
Object Pronouns
Serve as the object of a verb. That is, actions (represented by verbs) get done to them.
Ex: The boss gave her a raise
Most INDEFINITE Pronouns are….
Singular
Ex: Everyone has…..
Indefinite Pronouns List
Everyone ; Everybody ; Everything ; All ; Several ; Each ; Another ; Someone ; Somebody; Something ; Many ; Some ; Either ; Any ; No One ; Nobody ; Nothing ; More ; Few ; Neither ; Other ; Anyone ; Anybody ; Anything ; Most ; Both ; Much ; One; None
EACH is always…..
SINGULAR
If the word ends with -one ; -thing ; -body it’s….
SINGULAR
Absolute Adjectives
Adjectives that are not capable of being intensified
Ex: Dead; Square; Essential; Universal; Immortal; Unique
Working Verbs
The main verbs in a Sentence
Action Verbs
Express the action performed by a subject. The tense of an action verb provides information about When the action was performed.
Helping Verbs
Help other words to become complete compound verbs.
Ex: is, was, has, does, will, should, can
Gerund
If you can substitute for a NOUN, it is problably a Gerund.
Another tip is look for helper verbs. If the -ing word stands alone, it is not a verb
Infinitive Verbs
The infinitive form is the base form before you conjugate the verb; For this reason, an infinitive is never the main or working verb of a sentence
Tip on Singular/ Plural Verbs endind in -S
It’s a bit weird that, in English, singular verbs generally end in -S, and plural verbs do not end in -S.
Singular Verbs (It, He, She): Runs ; Differs ; Goes ; Has
Plural Verbs (we; they): Run ; Differ ; Go ; Have ; Are
Present Perfect
Action that started in the past and it’s still true or still happening
I/YOU/WE/THEY –> HAVE
HE/SHE/IT –> HAS
HAD Verbs - Past Perfect
Express the “Double Past”
It is when something happened before another action
Past Perfect and Time Marker
Past Perfect can also be used with a time marker
Ex: By 2011, she had traveled to India twice
Adverbs
Primarily used to modify VERBS. They can also be used to describe ADJECTIVES and other ADVERBS.
What they definitely DO NOT DO is to describe nouns. That’s the adjective function
Prepositions
Are used to to construct modifiers, which provide additional information about something else in the sentence
There are more than 100 prep in English
BUT as a Preposition
But is usually a Conjunction but can be used as a preposition when used to mean EXCEPT
Ex: All developed Nations BUT the US have some form of national health insurance
Ending Sentence With Prepositon
Even though some people say it is not acceptable to end a sentence with a preposition, most grammarians defend it is acceptable. Thus, the GMAT won’t test this concept
Conjunctions
They link words, phrases and sentences. For Example:
And ; But ; Either….or ; not only…but also ; If ; When ; Because
3 Types of Conjunctions
1 - Coordinating
2 - Correlative
3- Subordinating
Coordinating Conjunctions
FANBOYS
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
*On the GMAT you will be probably tested if the Conjunction is right
Correlative Conjunctions
The primary Correlative Conjunctions are:
Either/Or
Neither/Nor
Both/and
Wheter/Or
Not only/But Also –> It can be Not only/But
Parallel
Correct: I like to eat not only berries but also cherries, peaches, and apples
Incorrect: I like not only to eat berries but also cherries, peaches and apples
In the correct version the question being asked is: ‘WHAT DO I LIKE TO EAT?”
In the incorrect version the question is: “WHAT DO I LIKE?”
In the correct answer both things after the Conjunction are nouns and in the incorrect version is a “to verb”
Subordinating Conjunctions
They introduce dependent clauses. A dependent clause and a subordinate clause are the same thing.
Some of the most common subordinating conjunctions are:
After ; Although ; As ; As If ; As long As ; Because ; Before ; Even Though ; How ; If ; If Only ; In Order ; Once ; Since ; So that ; Than ; That ; Though ; Unless ; Until ; When ; Where ; Whether ; While
Complete Sentence
Always Contain a Subject + Predicate
Predicate always have a working verb
Run-On Sentences
Consists in two or more independent clauses joined without appropriate punctuaction or a conjunction;
For Example: It can be a Comma Splice. Which is a sentence of two independent clauses joined by only one comma
Comma Splice
Type of Run-On Sentence
When two independent clauses are joined by only one comma
It’s always wrong
Oxford Comma or Serial Comma
The use of comma before AND in a list
Semicolon (;)
Connects Two independent clauses. That is, the two parts on either sides must be complete sentences. Each one must stand alone and they must be closely related in meaning
Semicolon Before AND or BUT
Do not use it. A comma is fine
Colon (:)
The colon goes before a LIST or EXPLANATION.
The sentence before the colon must be able to stand alone
Modifiers
They describe something in the sentence, but they are not part of the core sentence
All prepositional phrases are modifiers, and there are many other kinds of modifiers
Opening Modifiers or “Warm-Ups” Examples
INCORRECT: Full of one million tons of trash, the mayor suggested that a new landfill be built
INCORRECT: Hiking through the woods, my backpack was stolen by bears.
In the first one it would be referring to MAYOR and in the second one to MY BACKPACK, which does not make sense
The “warm-up question”
The warm-up creates a question - who are the accomplished mathematicians and astronomers? The Question is answered after the comma
EX: Accomplished mathematicians and astronomers, the ancient Babylonians used a base-60 number system and were able to measure the length of the solar year
Use of THAT/WHO/WHICH/WHEN/ WHERE
- Don’t use THAT or WHICH for people (Instead, use WHO)
- When for times
- Where for places
INCORRECT: Young professionals THAT go to business school hope to increase their salary prospects. –> Do not use THAT for people. The right one would be WHO
INCORRECT: First-degree murder is WHEN the killing was premeditated. –> First-degree murder is not a time
WHO x WHOSE
Who is used only for people
Whose can be used for objects
Parallelism
Two or more phrases or clauses in a sentence that have the same grammatical structure
You must follow the same structure for the ‘entire list’ of the sentece
INCORRECT: Olympic athletes usually like practicing, competing and to eat ice cream sandwiches.
Here the last one is in the infinitive form
CORRECT: Olympic athletes usually like practicing, competing, and eating ice….
CORRECT: Olympic athletes usually like to practice, compete, and eat icre…..
Phrases beginning with THAT and WHEN
We need to compare phrases which start with the same idea. WHEN with WHEN… THAT with THAT
*Do not compare a phrase that starts with THAT to one that starts with WHEN, WHERE, WHICH or WHO
Dangling Modifiers
A modifier describes or qualifies another part of a sentence. A Dangling modifier occurs when the intended subject of the modifier is missing from the sentence, and instead another subject appears in its place
EX: Fumbling in her purse, the keys could not be found [ERRADO]
Fumbling in her purse, she could not find the keys [CORRETO]
Basically, is when the modifier “has nothing” to modify.
Usually, the subject (or doer) should come immediately after the comma:
Ex: While driving to work, Jane witnessed a car accident on the highway
Use of Getting
In getting x TO DO y
Use of ONCE
It should always be placed before the word it is refering
Ex: […] have once thought
Ability….
TO
Ex: Ability TO SING
Allow…
TO ou FOR
TO: Permits an action
FOR: Permits the existence of
Ex: The holiday allows Maria TO WATCH the movie [action]
The demolion of the building ALLOWS FOR new construction [permits the existence of]
As….
[8 USOS DIFERENTES]
AS I walked, I became more nervous (during)
AS I had already paid, I was unconcerned (because, since)
AS we did last year, we will win this year (in the same way)
JUST AS we did last year, we will win this year (in the same way)
AS the president of the company, she works hard (in the role of)
AS a child, I delivered newspaper (in the stage of being)
My first job was an apprenticeship AS a sketch artist (in the role of)
AS PART OF the arrangement, he received severance
AS…AS…
AS…AS
NOT AS….AS
AS MANY…AS
THREE TIMES AS MANY…AS
AT LEAST AS MANY…AS
ABOUT AS MANY AS
AS MUCH…AS
NOT SO MUCH… AS
AS MUCH…SO…AS
Believe…
she BELIEVES THAT Gary IS right
She BELIEVES gary TO BE right
IT IS BELIEVED THAT Gary IS right
Gary IS BELIEVED TO BE right
Both…AND…
She was interested BOTH in plants AND in animals
BUT….
I STUDY hard BUT TAKE breaks
I STUDY hard, BUT I TAKE breaks
ALTHOUGH I TAKE frequent naps, I STUDY effectively
DESPITE TAKING frequent naps, I STUDY effectively
Either…OR…
I will take EITHER the subway OR the bus
Expect…
TO or THAT
From…TO….
The price fell FROM 10 euros TO 3 Euros
In order to…
She drank coffee IN ORDER TO STAY awake
Indicate…
THAT
NOT..BUT…
A tomato is NOT a vegetable BUT a fruit
NOT ONLY…BUT ALSO…
We wore NOT ONLY boots BUT ALSO sandals
SO…AS TO..
The GMAT has an inconsistent position on this idiom but other authorities consider this idiom correct
Ex: The sauce was SO hot AS TO burn my mouth
So…That
The book was SO SHORT THAT I could read it in one night
SO THAT
She gave money SO THAT the school could offer scholarships (purpose)
Whether…OR..
I decided to eat the food, WHETHER it was tasty OR NOT
The 2 broad categories of Modifiers
1- Noun: Modify only a noun (Including pronouns)
2- Adverbial: Do NOT modify plain nouns or pronouns. Instead, theymodify almost anything else: verbs, adjectives, prep. phrases, even entire sentences
The Modifier and its placement in a phrase
In the GMAT tests, the placement of a modifier is one of the most important things! The placement can completely change the meaning of the sentence
The Tip about answers switching back and forth between the adjective and adverb forms of the same word in the modifiers section
1- If the choice uses the ADJECTIVAL form of the word, the adjective must be modifying a noun
2- If the choice uses the adverbial form, the adverb must be modifying something other than a noun
Modifier vs. Core
A mod can be Essential Mod or Nonessential Mod
This means if it’s part of the core sentence or not
NONESSENTIAL mods are usually separated out from the rest of the sentence by commas
ESSENTIAL mods are usually not separated out by commas
Which X That split in Mods
If you see this case you will have to think about whether is essential or nonessential (Since they are both mods you don’t needtho think about the noun x adverbial issue)
-Ing and -ed (Mod)
Noun Mod: Not set off by the rest of the sentence by commas
(Ex: The Engineer running the meeting fixed the problem)
Adverbial Mods: Set off by commas
(Ex: The Engineer fixed the problem, earning herself a promotion)
Which vs. -ing (Mod)
A comma which mod has to refer to a very nearby noun
(Ex: Wrong Sentence: Crime has recently decreased in our neighrborhood, which has led to a rise in property values)
In this case, NEIGHBORDHOOD did not lead to a rise in property values. Rather the action crime decreased led to the rise in property values
Right: CRIME HAS recently DECREASED in our neighborhood, leading to a rise in property values
Comma Which vs. Comma -ing
If the mod should refer to noun, comma which. If the mod should refer to an action, use comma -ing
Noun Modifiers
Noun Mod answer a specific question that you can ask about a noun
When you ask the question “What does (the modifier) describe?” and the answer points to a stand-alone noun, you have a noun mod
Noun Mods place
Usually a Noun mod and the Noun are placed very close together (most of the time)
Ex: A hard worker and loyal team player, the new project was managed by Sue (WRONG)
A hard worker and loyal team player, Sue Managed the new project
Opening Mod
Usually when the sentence starts with it and it is followed by a comma.
Also, the Noun would be pretty close to it
Precedence Essential Mod X Nonessential Mod
In general, an essential mod takes precedence over a nonessential mod
Ex: The box of nails, which is nearly full, belongs to Jean
Here we have 2 mods: Of Nails and Which is nearly full
Of Nails does not have a comma so it is an essential mod
“comma (,) Whici….” is a nonessential mod
A comma (,) Which mod is always…..
Nonessential Modifier
Possessive Nouns are Not…..
Actually Nouns! They are technically ADJECTIVES
A Noun Modifier is…
A Word or Group of words that describes or limit a Noun, providing more information about it
Noun Mod help to add more detail or context to the noun they modify, making the sentence more clearer
Noun Modifier Markers
Which , That , Who , Whose , Whom , etc
The Noun Mod Markers which starts with “w”…
Signal a Noun Modifier
Which, Who, Whose, Whom, etc
A noun followed immediately bt the word THAT….
signals a noun modifier
The Pronouns Who and Whom must modify…..
PEOPLE
on the other hand, the pronoun WHICH cannot modify people
The pronoun WHOSE surprisingly can modify….
both PEOPLE and THINGS
Ex: …the TOWN whose water supply was contaminated
WHICH or WHOM sometimes follow prepositions:
…the CANAL through which water flows
…the SENATOR for whom we worked
When you see this preposition-which or preposition-whom structure, check whether it is correct by inverting the text to create a complete sentence:
Original: The Canal through which water flows
Inverted text: Water flows through the canal
*Notice that WHICH is dropped in the inverted sentence
WHERE cannot modify metaphorical…..
PLACE!
Such as condition, situation, case
Wrong: We had an arrangement WHERE he cooked and I cleaned
Instead, use IN WHICH
Prepositions can signal…
Noun or Adverbial mods
When a Prepositional phrase is a noun Modifier….
It will almost always directly follow the noun that is modifying
Modifier Markers: -ING and -ED words
When an -ing mod is not set off by a comma, then you have a noun modifier
By contrast, when an -ing or -ed word is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma, it is an adverbial modifier
Both -ING and -ED words are called…..
Participles
Most people are used to thinking -ING words as verbs, but….
they only function as verbs in one specific circumstance. Most of the time, -ing words are modifiers; they can even be nouns!
She is running = is running (verb)
Running is fun = Running (subject - Noun)
The GIRL playing soccer is my sister = playing soccer (No commas - Noun Mod)
Any -ing word functioning as a verb will…..
Always have ANOTHER VERB immediatealy before it
She IS RUNNING
Any -ing word that are not verbs and not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma will either be….
a NOUN or modify ANOTHER NOUN
Any -ing word that are not verbs and are separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma will be….
an Adverbial Modifier
Unlike -ing words, -ed words are commonly used as….
VERBS and they can be verbs all by themselves
The comma rule still holds though: When the -ed word is separated by commas from the rest of the sentence, it is an adverbial modifier
When either a comma -ing or a comma -ed mod is an OPENING MOD…..
the mod needs to refer to the main subject after the comma
On the GMAT, comma -ing and comma -ed have to make sense with the whole clause that they modify
