Valvular Disease Flashcards
1
Q
What is aortic stenosis (AS)?
A
A condition characterized by narrowing of the aortic valve opening, impeding blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta.
2
Q
What are common symptoms of severe aortic stenosis?
A
- Chest pain (angina)
- Syncope
- Heart failure symptoms
3
Q
What is the prevalence of aortic stenosis in individuals over 75?
A
Approximately 2%.
4
Q
What congenital condition is a significant risk factor for aortic stenosis?
A
Bicuspid aortic valve.
5
Q
What are some risk factors for aortic stenosis?
A
- Age
- Congenital abnormalities
- Atherosclerosis risk factors (hypertension, high cholesterol, smoking)
- Previous rheumatic fever
6
Q
True or False: Aortic stenosis is more common in females than males.
A
False.
7
Q
What is the prognosis for symptomatic aortic stenosis without intervention?
A
Poor, with an average survival of about 2-3 years after symptom onset.
8
Q
What is the most common cause of aortic stenosis in older adults?
A
Age-related degenerative calcification of the aortic valve cusps.
9
Q
How does aortic stenosis affect the left ventricle?
A
It leads to left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) due to increased afterload.
10
Q
What are the symptoms associated with aortic stenosis?
A
- Dyspnoea (shortness of breath)
- Angina (chest pain)
- Syncope (fainting)
- Fatigue
- Heart failure symptoms
11
Q
What type of murmur is associated with aortic stenosis?
A
Systolic ejection murmur.
12
Q
Fill in the blank: The typical finding in ECG for aortic stenosis is _______.
A
Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH).
13
Q
What is the role of echocardiography in diagnosing aortic stenosis?
A
To assess valve structure, flow dynamics, and measure the aortic valve area.
14
Q
What are the classifications of aortic stenosis based on the aortic valve area?
A
- Mild: >1.5 cm²
- Moderate: 1.0-1.5 cm²
- Severe: <1.0 cm²
15
Q
What is the management strategy for asymptomatic aortic stenosis?
A
Regular monitoring through clinical evaluations and echocardiography every 1-2 years.
16
Q
What are the indications for aortic valve replacement (AVR)?
A
Recommended for symptomatic patients, irrespective of the degree of stenosis.
17
Q
What is the difference between SAVR and TAVR?
A
- SAVR: Surgical Aortic Valve Replacement, standard intervention
- TAVR: Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement, minimally invasive procedure
18
Q
What lifestyle modifications should be encouraged for patients with aortic stenosis?
A
- Heart-healthy diet
- Regular physical activity
- Smoking cessation
19
Q
What is the purpose of palliative care in severe aortic stenosis patients not eligible for surgery?
A
Focusing on symptom relief and quality of life.
20
Q
What is a characteristic finding in the physical examination of aortic stenosis?
A
Delayed and weak carotid pulse (pulsus parvus et tardus).
21
Q
What clinical feature may indicate heart failure in aortic stenosis patients?
A
Symptoms such as orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, and peripheral edema.
22
Q
What is the mechanism behind angina in aortic stenosis?
A
Increased myocardial oxygen demand and decreased coronary perfusion.
23
Q
What are the common causes of aortic stenosis in younger patients?
A
Congenital bicuspid aortic valve and rheumatic heart disease.
24
Q
What is the role of cardiac catheterization in aortic stenosis?
A
To measure the pressure gradient across the aortic valve, usually in complex cases.
25
What causes cardiac murmurs?
Turbulent blood flow within the heart or great vessels due to factors such as valve disorders, structural abnormalities, increased blood flow, and congenital heart disease.
26
What is stenosis in the context of cardiac murmurs?
Narrowing of valves that causes turbulent flow as blood is forced through a small opening.
27
What is regurgitation in the context of cardiac murmurs?
Incompetent valves that allow backward flow, creating turbulence.
28
What are septal defects?
Holes in the heart that cause abnormal blood flow between chambers.
29
What is patent ductus arteriosus?
A persistent fetal connection between the aorta and pulmonary artery that leads to continuous flow.
30
What conditions can lead to increased blood flow and benign murmurs?
Conditions like fever, anaemia, or hyperthyroidism.
31
How are murmurs assessed?
By their timing, location, intensity, and quality to determine the underlying cause and appropriate management.
32
What effect does inspiration have on murmurs?
Increases venous return to the right side of the heart, typically increasing the intensity of right-sided murmurs.
33
What effect does expiration have on murmurs?
Increases venous return to the left side of the heart, making left-sided murmurs more pronounced.
34
What is the Valsalva manoeuvre?
A forced expiration against a closed airway that decreases venous return due to increased intrathoracic pressure.
35
How do murmurs typically respond to the Valsalva manoeuvre?
Most murmurs decrease in intensity, but hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmur may intensify.
36
What is the effect of the isometric handgrip manoeuvre on murmurs?
Increases afterload, leading to increased intensity of certain murmurs like mitral regurgitation and decreased intensity of aortic stenosis.
37
What is the S3 heart sound?
A third heart sound often described as a 'ventricular gallop' occurring during rapid filling of the ventricles.
38
When does the S3 heart sound occur?
Shortly after the second heart sound (S2) during early diastole.
39
What conditions can cause a pathological S3 heart sound?
Heart failure, volume overload conditions, or conditions affecting ventricular compliance.
40
What is the S4 heart sound?
A fourth heart sound often referred to as an 'atrial gallop' occurring just before the first heart sound (S1).
41
What causes the S4 heart sound?
The forceful contraction of the atria pushing blood into a stiff or hypertrophied ventricle.
42
What conditions are associated with a pathological S4 heart sound?
Hypertension, aortic stenosis, ischemic heart disease, and other forms of ventricular hypertrophy.
43
What are the murmur characteristics of mitral stenosis?
Diastolic rumble, best heard at the apex, often accompanied by an opening snap.
44
What are the murmur characteristics of mitral regurgitation?
Holosystolic murmur, best heard at the apex, may radiate to the left axilla.
45
What are the murmur characteristics of aortic stenosis?
Systolic ejection murmur, best heard at the right second intercostal space, may radiate to the carotids.
46
What are the murmur characteristics of aortic regurgitation?
Diastolic murmur, best heard along the left sternal border, may be high-pitched and 'blowing'.
47
What are the murmur characteristics of tricuspid stenosis?
Diastolic rumble, best heard at the left lower sternal border, may increase with inspiration.
48
What are the murmur characteristics of tricuspid regurgitation?
Holosystolic murmur, best heard at the left lower sternal border, may increase with inspiration.
49
What are the murmur characteristics of pulmonic stenosis?
Systolic ejection murmur, best heard at the left second intercostal space, characterized by a 'crescendo-decrescendo' pattern.
50
What are the murmur characteristics of pulmonic regurgitation?
Diastolic murmur, best heard along the left sternal border, often low-pitched and may increase with inspiration.
51
What is Mitral Stenosis?
A condition characterized by the narrowing of the mitral valve opening, leading to an obstruction of blood flow from the left atrium to the left ventricle during diastole.
52
What are the primary compensatory mechanisms in Mitral Stenosis?
The left atrium may dilate over time due to persistent volume overload, increasing the risk of atrial fibrillation.
53
What is the prevalence of Mitral Stenosis in developed vs developing countries?
Less common in developed countries due to antibiotics for streptococcal infections; significant cause of morbidity in developing countries.
54
What age group is most affected by Mitral Stenosis?
Typically occurs in middle-aged to older adults, but can develop in younger individuals with a history of rheumatic fever.
55
Which gender is more commonly affected by Mitral Stenosis?
More common in women than in men.
56
What is the most common cause of Mitral Stenosis globally?
Rheumatic Fever, which follows an untreated Group A streptococcal throat infection.
57
List other causes of Mitral Stenosis.
* Congenital Conditions
* Degenerative Changes
* Infective Endocarditis
* Radiation
58
What are the main symptoms of Mitral Stenosis?
* Dyspnoea
* Fatigue
* Atrial fibrillation
* Palpitations
* Chest pain
59
What physical examination findings are associated with Mitral Stenosis?
* Diastolic murmur heard best at the apex
* Jugular venous distention
* Crackles due to pulmonary congestion
60
What is the characteristic murmur of Mitral Stenosis?
A diastolic rumble best heard at the apex, often with an opening snap.
61
What are the ECG findings in Mitral Stenosis?
* Atrial Enlargement (P mitrale)
* Atrial Fibrillation
* Other arrhythmias
62
What imaging study is first-line for diagnosing Mitral Stenosis?
Transthoracic Echocardiogram (TTE).
63
What is measured in Echocardiography for Mitral Stenosis?
* Valve morphology
* Mitral valve area
* Left atrial size
64
What are the classifications of Mitral Valve Area in Echocardiography?
* Mild: >1.5 cm²
* Moderate: 1.0–1.5 cm²
* Severe: <1.0 cm²
65
What is the purpose of a Chest X-Ray in the context of Mitral Stenosis?
To evaluate heart size and any pulmonary congestion.
66
What is the main goal of managing Mitral Stenosis?
To relieve symptoms and prevent complications.
67
What are the key aspects of medical management for Mitral Stenosis?
* Diuretics
* Anticoagulation
* Heart rate control with beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers
68
What is Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Valvotomy (PMBV)?
An interventional procedure for symptomatic patients with moderate to severe mitral stenosis.
69
What surgical options are available for Mitral Stenosis?
* Mitral Valve Repair
* Mitral Valve Replacement
70
What lifestyle modifications are recommended for patients with Mitral Stenosis?
* Balanced diet
* Regular exercise (as tolerated)
* Weight management
71
What complications can arise from Mitral Stenosis?
Increased risk of arrhythmias and thromboembolic events, such as stroke.
72
What is the role of patient education in managing Mitral Stenosis?
To help patients recognize worsening symptoms and when to seek medical attention.
73
What is Aortic Regurgitation (AR)?
A condition characterized by the backward flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during diastole due to improper closure of the aortic valve
## Footnote
Can lead to volume overload of the left ventricle and compensatory changes in cardiac structure and function.
74
What are the compensatory mechanisms in Aortic Regurgitation?
The left ventricle compensates by dilating to accommodate increased volume, which can lead to left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure if untreated.
75
What is the prevalence of Aortic Regurgitation?
Less common compared to aortic stenosis but has significant clinical implications. Incidence varies by population and underlying causes.
76
What are the degenerative causes of Aortic Regurgitation?
* Age-related changes in the aortic valve
* Chronic wear and tear leading to calcification and regurgitation.
77
What congenital problem is a common cause of Aortic Regurgitation?
Bicuspid aortic valve.
78
What is a key difference between acute and chronic Aortic Regurgitation?
Acute AR presents rapidly, often after infective endocarditis or aortic dissection, while chronic AR develops slowly over years.
79
What are common symptoms of significant Aortic Regurgitation?
* Dyspnea
* Fatigue
* Palpitations.
80
What is a common physical examination finding in Aortic Regurgitation?
A diastolic murmur best heard along the left sternal border.
81
What is De Musset's Sign?
A head bobbing that occurs in time with the heartbeat due to significant changes in stroke volume and blood flow.
82
What does a wide pulse pressure indicate in Aortic Regurgitation?
A significant difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures, reflecting increased stroke volume and decreased diastolic pressure.
83
What is the purpose of an Electrocardiogram (ECG) in diagnosing Aortic Regurgitation?
To evaluate the electrical activity of the heart and identify signs of left ventricular hypertrophy or left atrial enlargement.
84
What type of echocardiogram is commonly used as the first-line imaging modality for Aortic Regurgitation?
Transthoracic Echocardiogram (TTE).
85
What are the main management strategies for Aortic Regurgitation?
* Monitoring and follow-up
* Medical management
* Surgical intervention.
86
What medications are used in the medical management of Aortic Regurgitation?
* Diuretics
* Vasodilators
* Beta-blockers.
87
When is Aortic Valve Replacement (AVR) indicated?
For symptomatic patients or those with significant regurgitation and left ventricular dysfunction or dilation.
88
What lifestyle modifications are recommended for patients with Aortic Regurgitation?
* Balanced diet
* Regular physical activity
* Weight management.
89
What is the mechanism of dyspnea in Aortic Regurgitation?
Caused by pulmonary congestion due to increased left atrial pressure and impaired left ventricular function.
90
Fill in the blank: Aortic Regurgitation can lead to _______ due to increased myocardial oxygen demand.
Chest pain (angina).
91
True or False: Aortic Regurgitation shows a strong gender predilection.
False.
92
What can untreated chronic Aortic Regurgitation lead to?
Heart failure and arrhythmias.
93
What is the role of cardiac catheterization in diagnosing Aortic Regurgitation?
Typically not routine for diagnosis but may be used in complex cases to measure pressure gradients.
94
What are the potential complications of untreated Aortic Regurgitation?
* Heart failure
* Arrhythmias.
95
What lifestyle changes are encouraged for aortic regurgitation management?
A heart-healthy lifestyle including a balanced diet, regular physical activity, and weight management
## Footnote
These changes aim to improve overall heart health and manage symptoms.
96
Why is awareness of symptoms important for patients with aortic regurgitation?
To educate patients about recognizing worsening symptoms and when to seek medical attention
## Footnote
Early recognition of symptoms can lead to timely interventions.
97
What is the role of a multidisciplinary approach in managing aortic regurgitation?
To collaborate with cardiologists, primary care physicians, and possibly cardiac surgeons to create a comprehensive management plan
## Footnote
This ensures that all aspects of a patient's health are considered.
98
What are the two main strategies for managing aortic regurgitation?
Medical and surgical strategies focusing on symptom relief and prevention of complications
## Footnote
Both strategies are essential for effective management.
99
Why is regular monitoring essential in the management of aortic regurgitation?
To ensure timely intervention as disease severity progresses
## Footnote
Monitoring helps adapt the management plan based on the patient's condition.
100
What can personalized management plans significantly enhance in aortic regurgitation patients?
Patient outcomes and quality of life
## Footnote
Tailoring treatment to individual needs can lead to better health results.
101
What is mitral regurgitation (MR)?
A condition where the mitral valve does not close tightly, allowing blood to flow backward from the left ventricle into the left atrium during systole.
## Footnote
This leads to volume overload in the left atrium and ventricle, potentially causing heart failure.
102
What are the compensatory mechanisms in mitral regurgitation?
* Left atrium dilates over time to accommodate increased volume
* Left ventricle undergoes eccentric hypertrophy
## Footnote
These changes help manage the increased workload but can lead to further complications.
103
What is the prevalence of mitral regurgitation?
MR is one of the most common valvular heart diseases, particularly in older adults, affecting millions worldwide.
## Footnote
Prevalence varies depending on population and underlying causes.
104
What age group is most frequently affected by mitral regurgitation?
Most frequently observed in the elderly, usually due to degenerative changes or ischemic heart disease.
## Footnote
Can also occur in younger individuals with conditions like mitral valve prolapse.
105
How does gender influence mitral regurgitation?
* Mitral Valve Prolapse: More common in women
* Ischemic MR: More prevalent in men associated with coronary artery disease
## Footnote
Both men and women can be affected by MR.
106
What are common causes of mitral regurgitation?
* Degenerative Changes: Myxomatous degeneration or calcification
* Ischemic Heart Disease: Leads to papillary muscle dysfunction
* Rheumatic Heart Disease: Causes leaflet scarring
* Infective Endocarditis: Causes direct valve damage
* Functional MR: Due to left ventricular dilation
* Congenital Defects: Rare structural abnormalities
## Footnote
Different causes can lead to varying severity and treatment approaches.
107
What are the symptoms of mitral regurgitation?
* Dyspnea
* Fatigue
* Palpitations
* Chest Pain
## Footnote
Symptoms may vary based on severity and duration of regurgitation.
108
What is a characteristic physical examination finding in mitral regurgitation?
Holosystolic (or pansystolic) murmur best heard at the apex.
## Footnote
The murmur often radiates to the left axilla.
109
What are the long-term complications of mitral regurgitation?
* Progressive Heart Failure
* Thromboembolic Events
## Footnote
Chronic volume overload can lead to decreased left ventricular function and increased risk of thrombus formation.
110
What is the primary diagnostic tool for assessing mitral regurgitation?
Echocardiography is essential for assessing the severity and guiding management decisions.
## Footnote
It evaluates valve structure and function, ventricular size, and ejection fraction.
111
What findings might be present on an electrocardiogram (ECG) for mitral regurgitation?
* Left atrial enlargement
* Signs of left ventricular hypertrophy
* Possible atrial fibrillation
## Footnote
These findings can indicate chronic volume overload.
112
What is the management approach for mitral regurgitation?
* Monitoring and Follow-Up
* Medical Management
* Surgical Intervention
* Palliative Care
* Patient Education and Lifestyle Modifications
* Multidisciplinary Approach
## Footnote
Management strategies depend on severity and symptoms.
113
Fill in the blank: Patients with mitral regurgitation should undergo _______ to monitor the severity of the condition.
[regular evaluations]
114
What medications are commonly used in the medical management of mitral regurgitation?
* Diuretics
* Anticoagulation
* Beta-Blockers
* ACE Inhibitors or ARBs
## Footnote
These medications help manage symptoms and reduce complications.
115
What surgical interventions may be considered for mitral regurgitation?
* Mitral Valve Repair
* Mitral Valve Replacement
* Percutaneous Techniques like MitraClip
## Footnote
The choice depends on the severity and symptoms of MR.
116
True or False: Regular monitoring and timely intervention are critical for improving patient outcomes in mitral regurgitation.
True
## Footnote
Early recognition and management can prevent complications.
117
What is tricuspid regurgitation (TR)?
A condition where the tricuspid valve does not close properly during systole, allowing blood to flow backward from the right ventricle into the right atrium.
118
What are the hemodynamic consequences of tricuspid regurgitation?
* Right atrial enlargement
* Systemic venous congestion
119
What is the primary mechanism leading to tricuspid regurgitation?
Incomplete closure of the tricuspid valve leading to regurgitation, increasing volume and pressure in the right atrium.
120
How does tricuspid regurgitation affect the right atrium over time?
The right atrium may enlarge to accommodate increased volume, increasing the risk of arrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation.
121
What is the estimated prevalence of mild tricuspid regurgitation in the general population?
Mild tricuspid regurgitation is present in a significant portion of the general population, often seen during echocardiographic assessments.
122
How does age affect the prevalence of tricuspid regurgitation?
The prevalence of TR increases with age, primarily due to degenerative changes in the heart and valves.
123
True or False: There is a significant gender predilection for tricuspid regurgitation.
False
124
What are the common causes of functional tricuspid regurgitation?
* Right ventricular dilation
* Left-sided heart disease
* Pulmonary hypertension
125
What primary valve abnormalities can cause tricuspid regurgitation?
* Rheumatic heart disease
* Infective endocarditis
* Trauma
126
What are the clinical symptoms of significant tricuspid regurgitation?
* Peripheral oedema
* Ascites
* Dyspnoea
127
What is the primary diagnostic tool for assessing tricuspid regurgitation?
Echocardiography
128
What are the key findings in echocardiography for tricuspid regurgitation?
* Visualization of valve morphology
* Assessment of regurgitant jet width
* Evaluation of right atrial and ventricular size
129
What physical examination finding is characteristic of tricuspid regurgitation?
Holosystolic murmur best heard at the left lower sternal border
130
What is the mechanism behind peripheral oedema in tricuspid regurgitation?
Increased right atrial pressure leads to elevated venous pressure, causing fluid to leak into surrounding tissues.
131
What is the role of diuretics in the management of tricuspid regurgitation?
Used to manage fluid overload and alleviate symptoms of heart failure.
132
Fill in the blank: The most common surgical intervention for significant tricuspid regurgitation is _______.
[Tricuspid Valve Repair or Replacement]
133
What lifestyle modifications are recommended for patients with tricuspid regurgitation?
* Balanced diet low in sodium
* Regular physical activity
* Smoking cessation
134
What is the significance of early diagnosis and management of tricuspid regurgitation?
To prevent the progression of right-sided heart failure and its complications.
135
What is valve replacement?
Considered if the valve is too damaged for repair, involving either mechanical or bioprosthetic valves.
136
What is the focus of palliative care for patients who are not surgical candidates?
Managing symptoms and improving quality of life.
137
What are some key components of patient education and lifestyle modifications for heart health?
Encourage heart-healthy practices, including:
* A balanced diet low in sodium and rich in heart-healthy nutrients
* Regular physical activity as tolerated
* Smoking cessation
138
Why is it important for patients to be aware of symptoms?
To recognize worsening symptoms and seek medical attention when necessary.
139
What does a multidisciplinary approach involve in managing tricuspid regurgitation?
Involving a team that includes cardiologists, primary care physicians, and cardiac surgeons.
140
What is the management strategy for tricuspid regurgitation based on?
The severity of the condition and the patient's symptoms.
141
What are essential components for optimizing outcomes in tricuspid regurgitation management?
Regular monitoring, medical management for symptom relief, and surgical interventions when appropriate.
142
True or False: Early diagnosis and treatment can significantly improve the quality of life for individuals with tricuspid regurgitation.
True
143
Fill in the blank: Palliative care may include optimizing medical therapy and providing _______ about the condition.
[education]
144
What is the first step in diagnosing valvular heart disease?
Listening to heart sounds using a stethoscope
## Footnote
This is known as cardiac auscultation.
145
What findings can be identified during cardiac auscultation?
Characteristic murmurs and additional sounds
## Footnote
Examples include systolic murmur in aortic stenosis and diastolic murmur in mitral regurgitation.
146
What is an echocardiogram?
An ultrasound of the heart that provides real-time images of cardiac structures
## Footnote
It is used to assess valve morphology, function, and dimensions.
147
What are the two types of echocardiograms?
* Transthoracic Echocardiogram (TTE)
* Transesophageal Echocardiogram (TEE)
## Footnote
TEE is used for better visualization in complex cases.
148
What does a chest X-ray evaluate in the context of valvular heart disease?
Heart size and pulmonary circulation
## Footnote
It can indicate cardiomegaly and pulmonary congestion.
149
What are potential ECG findings in valvular heart disease?
* Left ventricular hypertrophy
* Arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation
## Footnote
These findings may arise due to structural changes from valvular heart disease.
150
What is cardiac catheterization?
An invasive procedure measuring pressures and assessing anatomy of the heart
## Footnote
It can measure pressure gradients across valves.
151
What is calcification in the context of valvular heart disease?
Deposition of calcium salts in heart valves, leading to stiffening
## Footnote
Common in aortic stenosis and mitral stenosis.
152
What does sclerosis refer to in valvular heart disease?
Thickening and hardening of valve leaflets
## Footnote
Often seen in aortic and mitral valves, especially in older adults.
153
What is leaflet fusion?
Joining of valve leaflets at the commissures, preventing proper closure
## Footnote
Common in aortic stenosis and mitral stenosis.
154
What is annular dilation?
Enlargement of the valve annulus due to volume overload
## Footnote
Common in mitral and tricuspid regurgitation.
155
What is myxomatous degeneration?
Structural changes in the mitral valve leading to elongation and redundancy of leaflets
## Footnote
Often results in mitral regurgitation.
156
What is endocardial inflammation?
Inflammation of the endocardium causing scarring and damage to valve leaflets
## Footnote
Common in rheumatic heart disease and infective endocarditis.
157
What is asymmetric thickening in valvular heart disease?
Non-uniform thickening of valve leaflets
## Footnote
Can lead to alterations in function, commonly seen in aortic regurgitation or mitral stenosis.
158
What are the components of conservative management for valvular heart disease?
* Regular clinical assessments
* Echocardiographic evaluations
* Symptomatic assessment
## Footnote
Monitoring the progression of valve disease is crucial.
159
What is the role of diuretics in the medical management of valvular heart disease?
To manage fluid overload and symptoms of heart failure
## Footnote
An example is furosemide.
160
What is Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation (TAVI)?
A catheter-based approach to deliver a new valve for severe aortic stenosis
## Footnote
It is minimally invasive and suitable for high-risk patients.
161
What is the MitraClip procedure?
A device delivered via catheter to clip together edges of mitral valve leaflets
## Footnote
It reduces regurgitation in patients not suitable for surgery.
162
What are mechanical valves?
Durable valves made from materials like metals and plastics
## Footnote
They require lifelong anticoagulation to prevent thromboembolic events.
163
What are tissue valves?
* Made from animal tissues
* Do not usually require lifelong anticoagulation
* May need replacement after 10-15 years
## Footnote
Often used in older patients.
164
What is heart failure in the context of valvular heart disease?
Compromised ability of the heart to pump blood effectively
## Footnote
Symptoms include dyspnoea, fatigue, and oedema.
165
What is atrial fibrillation (AF)?
A common arrhythmia characterized by irregular and rapid heart rate
## Footnote
It can increase the risk of thromboembolic events like stroke.
166
What is left ventricular remodeling?
Structural changes in the left ventricle, including dilation and hypertrophy
## Footnote
Occurs due to chronic volume or pressure overload.
167
What is pulmonary hypertension?
Increased pressure in the pulmonary circulation
## Footnote
Resulting from backward pressure due to left-sided heart disease.
168
What is thromboembolism?
Formation of blood clots that may travel to other body parts
## Footnote
Stasis in an enlarged left atrium increases the risk of clot formation.
169
What is endocarditis?
Infection of the heart valves due to bacterial colonization
## Footnote
Can lead to further valve dysfunction and systemic complications.
170
What are significant arrhythmias associated with valvular heart disease?
* Atrial flutter
* Ventricular tachycardia
* Bradyarrhythmias
## Footnote
These may arise from electrical conduction abnormalities.
171
What are systemic embolic complications?
Embolisms caused by dislodged vegetations from heart valves
## Footnote
Can result in organ damage, affecting the brain, kidneys, or spleen.
