Blood Vessels Flashcards

Question

What do internal iliac veins drain?

Answer 1

Drain the pelvis.

Answer 2

External iliac veins

Answer 3

Draining excess fluid from tissues and returning it to the bloodstream.

Answer 4

Lymph (fluid containing white blood cells)

Answer 5

Thoracic duct

Answer 6

Lymph from the lower body, left side of the chest, left arm, neck, and head.

Answer 7

Left subclavian vein

Answer 8

Lymph from the right side of the head, neck, right arm, and right side of the chest.

Answer 9

Right subclavian vein

Answer 10

Filter lymph fluid and help in immune responses.

Answer 11

Filters blood and helps in the immune response.

Answer 12

Absorption of fats from the digestive system.

Answer 13

Large elastic arteries that include the aorta, carotid arteries, subclavian arteries, and pulmonary arteries. ## Footnote These arteries are characterized by a large diameter and high elastic fiber content.

Answer 14

* Large diameter * High concentration of elastic tissue * Thick walls composed mainly of elastic tissue and smooth muscle

Answer 15

To maintain continuous blood flow by smoothing out the pulse produced by the heart. ## Footnote This is achieved through the expansion and contraction of elastic fibers.

Answer 16

False ## Footnote Conducting arteries have low resistance and facilitate rapid blood transport.

Answer 17

Medium muscular arteries that include the brachial artery, femoral artery, renal artery, and radial artery. ## Footnote They direct blood from conducting arteries to specific organs and tissues.

Answer 18

* Medium diameter * High proportion of smooth muscle cells in the tunica media

Answer 19

To regulate the diameter of the artery, allowing for vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Answer 20

oxygenated

Answer 21

Small diameter arteries that lead to capillaries, such as renal arterioles and intestinal arterioles. ## Footnote They play a crucial role in regulating blood flow.

Answer 22

* Small diameter * Thick tunica media relative to their size

Answer 23

Regulation of blood flow into capillary beds through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Answer 24

False ## Footnote Arterioles have little to no elastic tissue.

Answer 25

Small rings of smooth muscle in some arterioles that regulate blood flow into capillaries.

Answer 26

By creating resistance to blood flow; vasoconstriction increases blood pressure, while vasodilation decreases it.

Answer 27

Conducting arteries have a larger diameter and more elastic tissue, while distributing arteries have more smooth muscle and are smaller.

Answer 28

8 to 100 micrometers

Answer 29

Tunica intima and a very thin tunica media

Answer 30

No, only some venules, particularly in the lower limbs

Answer 31

Deoxygenated blood

Answer 32

To collect blood from capillaries

Answer 33

They can constrict or dilate

Answer 34

Larger veins

Answer 35

1 mm to 10 mm

Answer 36

Thicker walls with a noticeable tunica media

Answer 37

To prevent backflow of blood

Answer 38

Channels for blood returning to the heart

Answer 39

To maintain low but steady venous pressure

Answer 40

Several millimeters to more than 3 cm

Answer 41

Inferior vena cava and superior vena cava

Answer 42

Thin walls with a thick tunica adventitia

Answer 43

Yes, but they are less frequent compared to medium veins

Answer 44

To return blood to the heart

Answer 45

Slow and non-pulsatile

Answer 46

External forces like muscle contractions and the respiratory pump

Answer 47

Tunica Intima ## Footnote It is composed of a single layer of endothelial cells that form a smooth lining for blood flow.

Answer 48

* Endothelium * Subendothelial layer * Internal elastic lamina

Answer 49

The subendothelial layer in arteries is relatively thick and contains collagen fibers and smooth muscle cells, while in veins it is thinner with less connective tissue.

Answer 50

It provides elasticity for maintaining blood pressure.

Answer 51

* Arteries have a thick tunica media dominated by smooth muscle cells * Veins have a much thinner tunica media with fewer smooth muscle cells

Answer 52

It helps arteries regulate their diameter and maintain blood pressure.

Answer 53

They allow the artery to stretch during systole and recoil during diastole.

Answer 54

Veins do not need to handle the same high-pressure fluctuations as arteries.

Answer 55

It contains collagen and elastic fibers that provide structural support.

Answer 56

Small blood vessels that supply the outer layers of the artery wall with nutrients and oxygen.

Answer 57

The tunica adventitia in veins is much thicker than in arteries.

Answer 58

They prevent the backflow of blood, ensuring it is pushed toward the heart.

Answer 59

No, arteries do not contain valves.

Answer 60

Folds of the tunica intima.

Answer 61

Arteries have relatively thicker walls, particularly the tunica media, while veins have thinner walls.

Answer 62

It is necessary to withstand and maintain higher blood pressure.

Answer 63

Pressure is the force exerted by a fluid against the walls of a vessel or tube.

Answer 64

Pressure is the driving force that propels the fluid through the tube. The higher the pressure difference between the start and end points of the tube, the greater the flow.

Answer 65

Pressure is measured in pascals (Pa) or mmHg.

Answer 66

Volume refers to the amount of fluid that is moved or contained within a given space.

Answer 67

The volume flow rate is the volume of fluid passing through a section of the tube per unit time, typically measured in liters per minute (L/min) or milliliters per second (mL/s).

Answer 68

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of fluid through a tube.

Answer 69

* Length of the tube (L) * Radius of the tube (r) * Viscosity of the fluid (η)

Answer 70

The longer the tube, the greater the resistance to flow.

Answer 71

Resistance is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the radius; a smaller radius results in greater resistance.

Answer 72

The thicker the fluid, the more resistance it encounters.

Answer 73

R = (8ηL) / (πr^4)

Answer 74

Flow refers to the volume of fluid that moves through a tube per unit of time.

Answer 75

Flow increases with an increase in pressure difference or a decrease in resistance.

Answer 76

Q = ΔP / R

Answer 77

Higher resistance results in lower flow.

Answer 78

Resistance increases, resulting in decreased flow.

Answer 79

If resistance increases, flow decreases for a given pressure; conversely, if resistance decreases, flow increases.

Answer 80

The heart generates pressure through contraction to push blood into the arteries, creating a pressure gradient.

Answer 81

Vasoconstriction increases resistance and decreases blood flow unless the heart increases pressure.

Answer 82

pressure difference (ΔP)

Answer 83

Polycythemia (high red blood cell count) or dehydration.

Answer 84

It helps to see how the circulatory system regulates blood flow and how changes in these factors affect blood movement.

Answer 85

Preload refers to the degree of stretch of the heart muscle fibers at the end of diastole, just before contraction.

Answer 86

The volume of blood returning to the heart (venous return).

Answer 87

The amount of blood in the ventricles just before systole.

Answer 88

Increased venous return results in higher preload.

Answer 89

* Blood loss * Dehydration * Venous obstruction

Answer 90

Impaired atrial contraction can reduce preload.

Answer 91

Vasoconstriction increases venous return and preload, while venodilation decreases it.

Answer 92

Lying down increases venous return; standing reduces it due to gravity.

Answer 93

Increased blood volume raises preload, while decreased volume lowers it.

Answer 94

Afterload refers to the resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood during systole.

Answer 95

* Systemic vascular resistance * Elasticity of arteries * Valvular stenosis

Answer 96

Higher SVR increases afterload, making it harder for the heart to pump blood.

Answer 97

Decreased compliance (stiff arteries) increases afterload; increased compliance lowers it.

Answer 98

A weak left ventricle has a decreased ability to overcome afterload.

Answer 99

It increases afterload by requiring greater pressure to eject blood into the aorta.

Answer 100

Pulmonary vascular resistance.

Answer 101

Increased pulmonary resistance raises right ventricular afterload.

Answer 102

The relationship between preload and stroke volume.

Answer 103

It leads to a more forceful contraction and increased stroke volume.

Answer 104

It can reduce contractile force and result in heart failure.

Answer 105

Increased afterload reduces stroke volume; decreased afterload increases it.

Answer 106

Preload determines initial stretch and volume; afterload dictates resistance against which the heart pumps.

Answer 107

Imbalances can occur, making it difficult for the heart to pump effectively.

Answer 108

heart failure.

Answer 109

The amount of blood the heart pumps per minute, crucial for tissue perfusion and cardiovascular health.

Answer 110

Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV)

Answer 111

The number of heartbeats per minute.

Answer 112

* Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) * Hormonal Regulation * Age and Physical Fitness * Body Temperature * Blood Oxygen Levels

Answer 113

Increased HR generally increases CO, if stroke volume is maintained.

Answer 114

The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle per beat.

Answer 115

* Preload * Afterload * Contractility

Answer 116

The initial stretching of cardiac muscle fibers due to the volume of blood returning to the heart.

Answer 117

* Venous Return * Blood Volume * Atrial Contraction * Vascular Tone

Answer 118

Increased preload leads to increased stroke volume up to a point.

Answer 119

The resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood during systole.

Answer 120

* Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR) * Aortic Compliance * Aortic Valve Stenosis * Pulmonary Resistance

Answer 121

Increased afterload makes it more difficult for the heart to pump blood, reducing stroke volume.

Answer 122

The inherent ability of the heart muscle to contract with force.

Answer 123

* Sympathetic Nervous System * Hormonal Regulation * Heart Disease

Answer 124

Increased contractility increases stroke volume and cardiac output.

Answer 125

Reduced compliance increases afterload and reduces stroke volume.

Answer 126

Changes in body position can affect venous return, preload, and cardiac output.

Answer 127

Increased viscosity raises resistance and afterload, reducing cardiac output.

Answer 128

Heart rate and contractility increase, leading to increased cardiac output.

Answer 129

Heart failure impairs the heart's ability to pump blood, reducing contractility and cardiac output.

Answer 130

Chronic high blood pressure increases afterload, potentially decreasing stroke volume and cardiac output.

Answer 131

Systemic vasodilation decreases afterload, but the heart may struggle with maintaining sufficient contractility.

Answer 132

heart rate

Answer 133

The perfusion pressure that drives blood flow through the tissues, organs, and vital systems of the body.

Answer 134

MAP = DBP + (SBP - DBP) / 3

Answer 135

Systolic Blood Pressure; the highest pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts.

Answer 136

Diastolic Blood Pressure; the lowest pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest between beats.

Answer 137

Because the heart spends more time in diastole than systole.

Answer 138

Typically between 70 mmHg and 105 mmHg.

Answer 139

60 mmHg or higher.

Answer 140

Conditions like shock or monitoring critical care patients.

Answer 141

Inadequate perfusion of vital organs.

Answer 142

Hypertension and potential damage to the cardiovascular system over time.

Answer 143

[hemodynamic]

Answer 144

Crucial for assessing tissue perfusion and overall circulatory health.

Answer 145

MAP is primarily influenced by several physiological parameters contributing to the pressure in the arteries over the course of a cardiac cycle.

Answer 146

* Cardiac Output (CO) * Stroke Volume (SV) * Heart Rate (HR) * Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR)

Answer 147

CO is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute, calculated as CO = SV × HR.

Answer 148

Increased CO generally increases MAP, while decreased CO generally decreases MAP.

Answer 149

SV is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle of the heart during each contraction.

Answer 150

* Preload * Contractility * Afterload

Answer 151

Increased SV leads to a larger volume of blood in the arteries during each heartbeat, increasing arterial pressure.

Answer 152

HR is the number of heartbeats per minute.

Answer 153

Increased HR generally increases CO, leading to an increase in MAP, while decreased HR can lower MAP.

Answer 154

TPR is the resistance to blood flow offered by all systemic blood vessels, primarily the arterioles.

Answer 155

* Diameter of the arterioles * Length of the vessels * Viscosity of the blood

Answer 156

Increased TPR raises the resistance the heart has to overcome, increasing MAP.

Answer 157

directly proportional

Answer 158

vasoconstriction

Answer 159

Higher HR increases CO, assuming stroke volume is unchanged.

Answer 160

Decreased TPR

Answer 161

MAP generally decreases.

Answer 162

Cardiac Output (CO), Stroke Volume (SV), Heart Rate (HR), Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) ## Footnote These parameters can be altered by various factors affecting blood pressure.

Answer 163

It increases CO and can lead to an increase in MAP if TPR remains constant ## Footnote Increased HR can result from exercise, stress, anxiety, or hormones like epinephrine.

Answer 164

Heart Rate (HR), Stroke Volume (SV) ## Footnote Changes in HR and SV can increase or decrease CO.

Answer 165

It decreases, which can lower MAP ## Footnote Bradycardia can be caused by vagal stimulation or hypothyroidism.

Answer 166

Increased venous return, positive inotropic agents, reduced afterload ## Footnote Examples of positive inotropic agents include epinephrine and dopamine.

Answer 167

Preload, contractility, afterload ## Footnote Each factor directly affects the amount of blood pumped by the heart.

Answer 168

Increased Stroke Volume (SV) and potentially increased MAP ## Footnote Increased preload can occur during fluid retention or exercise.

Answer 169

Heart failure, hypovolemia, aortic stenosis ## Footnote A decrease in SV reduces CO, which may lower MAP.

Answer 170

Inotropic state, drugs that increase or decrease contractility ## Footnote Increased contractility can be due to drugs like dopamine and epinephrine.

Answer 171

It decreases SV, potentially lowering MAP ## Footnote Increased afterload can be caused by hypertension or aortic stenosis.

Answer 172

It regulates HR through sympathetic and parasympathetic activation ## Footnote Sympathetic activation increases HR; parasympathetic activation decreases HR.

Answer 173

It increases HR, leading to higher CO and MAP ## Footnote This occurs during stress or exercise.

Answer 174

Vagal stimulation, hypothyroidism, beta-blockers ## Footnote Decreased HR results in lower CO and MAP.

Answer 175

Vascular tone, diameter of arterioles ## Footnote TPR is influenced by vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Answer 176

It increases TPR and subsequently increases MAP ## Footnote Conditions like sympathetic stimulation or increased catecholamines cause vasoconstriction.

Answer 177

Vasodilation, conditions like sepsis or anaphylaxis ## Footnote Vasodilators such as nitroglycerin can also reduce TPR.

Answer 178

It increases MAP by raising venous return, preload, and stroke volume ## Footnote Increased blood volume can result from renal fluid retention or excessive salt intake.

Answer 179

Standing up suddenly can lower MAP, lying down can raise MAP ## Footnote Orthostatic changes can temporarily reduce venous return.

Answer 180

The constant level of contraction in the smooth muscle of blood vessels, especially in arterioles, essential for maintaining baseline vascular resistance and blood pressure.

Answer 181

It affects the diameter of the vessel, influencing total peripheral resistance (TPR) and mean arterial pressure (MAP).

Answer 182

It contributes to overall resting vascular resistance and helps maintain blood pressure to ensure adequate tissue perfusion.

Answer 183

It can cause an increase in TPR, leading to elevated blood pressure (hypertension).

Answer 184

It can decrease TPR and lower blood pressure (hypotension).

Answer 185

The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS).

Answer 186

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

Answer 187

It has a lesser direct effect but can influence vascular tone by affecting heart rate.

Answer 188

It is a potent vasodilator that reduces vascular tone by relaxing smooth muscle and dilating blood vessels.

Answer 189

It is a potent vasoconstrictor that increases basal vascular tone and raises TPR and blood pressure.

Answer 190

The ability of tissues to regulate their own blood flow by adjusting the tone of arterioles in response to local conditions.

Answer 191

vasoconstrictor

Answer 192

It indirectly impacts vascular tone by increasing blood volume, which can increase vascular resistance and blood pressure.

Answer 193

Vasopressin (ADH).

Answer 194

It leads to higher basal vascular tone (vasoconstriction) and higher blood pressure.

Answer 195

It can reduce the ability to produce nitric oxide (NO), leading to increased basal vascular tone and higher blood pressure.

Answer 196

Exercise can lead to vasodilation in the muscles, reducing vascular tone in those regions.

Answer 197

Cold temperatures can increase vascular tone due to vasoconstriction, while warmth can reduce it through vasodilation.

Answer 198

Factors outside the blood vessels and their smooth muscle cells that influence vascular tone and the contraction or relaxation of arterial smooth muscle

Answer 199

To modulate vascular tone, affecting the diameter of arteries and arterioles, influencing total peripheral resistance (TPR), blood pressure (BP), and blood flow distribution

Answer 200

The autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Answer 201

Through the release of norepinephrine (NE), causing vasoconstriction via alpha-adrenergic receptors

Answer 202

Causes vasoconstriction, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure

Answer 203

Mediates vasodilation in response to epinephrine in certain arteries, like coronary arteries

Answer 204

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Answer 205

It acts on endothelial cells to release nitric oxide (NO), a potent vasodilator

Answer 206

A potent vasoconstrictor that increases vascular resistance and blood pressure

Answer 207

Aldosterone and vasopressin

Answer 208

Acts as a vasoconstrictor, promoting smooth muscle contraction and increasing TPR and blood pressure

Answer 209

By increasing blood volume through sodium and water retention in the kidneys

Answer 210

A potent vasoconstrictor released from endothelial cells, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure

Answer 211

A potent vasodilator that causes smooth muscle relaxation and vasodilation

Answer 212

Increases cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels leading to relaxation and vasodilation

Answer 213

Causes vasodilation through its action on A2 receptors

Answer 214

vasoconstriction

Answer 215

vasodilation

Answer 216

Norepinephrine (NE) ## Footnote Norepinephrine is released from sympathetic nerve endings and activates alpha-adrenergic receptors on smooth muscle cells.

Answer 217

Vasoconstriction, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure ## Footnote This is particularly important in fight or flight situations.

Answer 218

Indirect influence through heart rate modification ## Footnote The PNS primarily reduces heart rate via the vagus nerve.

Answer 219

Promotes vasodilation and reduces vascular tone ## Footnote NO is produced by endothelial cells and activates guanylate cyclase.

Answer 220

Causes vasoconstriction and increases vascular resistance ## Footnote Angiotensin II binds to AT1 receptors on smooth muscle cells.

Answer 221

Vasoconstriction, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure ## Footnote Vasopressin binds to V1 receptors on smooth muscle cells.

Answer 222

Increases sodium and water retention by kidneys ## Footnote This leads to increased blood volume and indirectly raises blood pressure.

Answer 223

Causes vasoconstriction, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure ## Footnote Endothelin-1 is released by endothelial cells and binds to ETA receptors.

Answer 224

Mixed effect: vasoconstriction in most arteries, vasodilation in coronary and skeletal muscle ## Footnote Epinephrine binds to alpha-adrenergic receptors for vasoconstriction and beta-adrenergic receptors for vasodilation.

Answer 225

Vasodilation, leading to decreased vascular tone and blood pressure ## Footnote PGI2 binds to IP receptors and increases cyclic AMP levels.

Answer 226

Acts as a vasodilator, particularly in coronary and renal circulation ## Footnote Adenosine binds to A2 receptors on smooth muscle cells.

Answer 227

fight or flight ## Footnote This response increases arterial tone to divert blood flow to vital organs.

Answer 228

False ## Footnote The parasympathetic system's role in direct vascular regulation is less pronounced.

Answer 229

Elevated blood pressure and increased total peripheral resistance (TPR) ## Footnote This contributes to fluid retention through aldosterone and vasopressin stimulation.

Answer 230

Increases due to NO activating guanylate cyclase ## Footnote cGMP causes smooth muscle relaxation, leading to vasodilation.

Answer 231

Increased vascular resistance and blood pressure ## Footnote Vasopressin plays a significant role in regulating blood pressure in these conditions.

Answer 232

The SNS releases norepinephrine, causing vasoconstriction, increased Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR), heart rate, and contractility, resulting in increased blood pressure. ## Footnote The increase in blood pressure is due to both vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output.

Answer 233

Epinephrine causes vasoconstriction via alpha-adrenergic receptors and vasodilation in some tissues via beta-adrenergic receptors, leading to an overall increase in blood pressure. ## Footnote Vasodilation occurs in certain vascular beds, such as skeletal muscles and coronary arteries.

Answer 234

Norepinephrine primarily causes vasoconstriction through alpha-adrenergic receptors, increasing vascular resistance and blood pressure. ## Footnote It is released from sympathetic nerve endings.

Answer 235

Histamine causes vasodilation by increasing blood vessel permeability, leading to decreased vascular resistance and blood pressure. ## Footnote This occurs during immune responses, such as allergic reactions or inflammation.

Answer 236

Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor that increases vascular resistance and stimulates aldosterone release, raising blood volume and blood pressure. ## Footnote It acts on AT1 receptors on smooth muscle cells.

Answer 237

AVP causes vasoconstriction and promotes water retention, increasing blood volume and blood pressure. ## Footnote It is released in response to low blood volume or high blood osmolality.

Answer 238

Vasodilator nerves release NO, which promotes vasodilation, decreases vascular resistance, and lowers blood pressure. ## Footnote NO acts on smooth muscle of blood vessels, increasing cyclic GMP.

Answer 239

ANP promotes vasodilation and enhances sodium excretion by the kidneys, leading to decreased blood volume and lower blood pressure. ## Footnote It is released in response to increased blood volume and atrial stretch.

Answer 240

vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output.

Answer 241

* Vasoconstriction * Water retention

Answer 242

Decreases vascular resistance.

Answer 243

Factors that influence arterial smooth muscle behavior from within the vessel itself.

Answer 244

To maintain constant blood flow despite changes in blood pressure.

Answer 245

Smooth muscle in the vessel wall contracts to resist the increase in pressure.

Answer 246

The smooth muscle relaxes to allow more blood to flow.

Answer 247

Maintains relatively constant blood flow to organs despite fluctuations in systemic blood pressure.

Answer 248

The process by which local factors in tissues control blood vessel diameter to match local metabolic demands.

Answer 249

Carbon dioxide, lactic acid, adenosine, and potassium ions.

Answer 250

They cause vasodilation, increasing blood flow to the tissue.

Answer 251

Low oxygen levels induce vasodilation, while high oxygen levels lead to vasoconstriction.

Answer 252

To modulate vascular tone through the release of various vasoactive substances.

Answer 253

A potent vasodilator that relaxes smooth muscle and increases blood flow.

Answer 254

A potent vasoconstrictor that causes smooth muscle contraction and increases vascular resistance.

Answer 255

A vasodilator that promotes smooth muscle relaxation, especially in pulmonary circulation.

Answer 256

The frictional force exerted by blood flow on the walls of blood vessels.

Answer 257

It triggers the endothelium to release nitric oxide, leading to vasodilation.

Answer 258

Shear stress is reduced, leading to the release of endothelin-1, which causes vasoconstriction.

Answer 259

To affect arterial smooth muscle and alter blood vessel diameter.

Answer 260

It causes vasodilation in coronary and cerebral blood vessels.

Answer 261

They can cause both vasodilation and vasoconstriction depending on the tissue and situation.

Answer 262

[constant]

Answer 263

[metabolic]

Answer 264

* Myogenic Autoregulation * Metabolic Autoregulation * Endothelial Regulation * Shear Stress * Local Hormonal Influences

Answer 265

High oxygen levels generally cause vasoconstriction, leading to a mild increase in systemic blood pressure. ## Footnote This effect is particularly noted in pulmonary circulation as hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction.

Answer 266

Low oxygen levels induce vasodilation, resulting in lower blood pressure in the local region. ## Footnote This helps restore oxygen levels by ensuring adequate perfusion to hypoxic tissues.

Answer 267

Increased CO2 levels cause vasodilation, which typically lowers blood pressure in the local region. ## Footnote Systemic vasodilation could slightly decrease mean arterial pressure (MAP).

Answer 268

Lactic acid causes vasodilation by lowering local pH, leading to lower blood pressure locally in exercising muscles. ## Footnote This effect helps increase blood flow to clear the acid and deliver oxygen and nutrients.

Answer 269

Adenosine is a potent vasodilator that decreases blood pressure locally and may reduce systemic blood pressure if widespread vasodilation occurs. ## Footnote It is released during low oxygen states and high metabolic demand.

Answer 270

Nitric oxide causes vasodilation, resulting in lower blood pressure by reducing vascular resistance. ## Footnote NO is produced by endothelial cells in response to shear stress or other stimuli.

Answer 271

Endothelin-1 is a potent vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure by raising vascular resistance. ## Footnote It is released in response to injury or stress and plays a role in conditions like hypertension.

Answer 272

Specialized sensory receptors that monitor blood pressure and help maintain homeostasis by regulating heart rate and vascular tone.

Answer 273

They are stretch-sensitive receptors that detect changes in the stretch of blood vessel walls.

Answer 274

A cascade of physiological responses to restore normal blood pressure levels.

Answer 275

At the bifurcation of the common carotid artery into the internal and external carotid arteries on either side of the neck.

Answer 276

To detect changes in systemic arterial pressure, particularly the pressure delivered to the brain.

Answer 277

In the aortic arch, just after it leaves the heart.

Answer 278

Pressure in the systemic circulation and play a role in longer-term regulation of blood pressure.

Answer 279

A mechanism that helps the body regulate blood pressure in response to short-term changes.

Answer 280

The walls of the arteries stretch more, which stimulates the baroreceptors.

Answer 281

The walls of the arteries stretch less, leading to decreased baroreceptor activation.

Answer 282

The medulla oblongata, specifically the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS).

Answer 283

Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX).

Answer 284

Vagus nerve (cranial nerve X).

Answer 285

Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system to decrease heart rate and promote vasodilation.

Answer 286

Activation of the sympathetic nervous system to increase heart rate and contractility, and induce vasoconstriction.

Answer 287

Negative feedback mechanism.

Answer 288

To help maintain blood pressure homeostasis by detecting changes in arterial pressure and initiating rapid corrective responses.

Answer 289

* Carotid sinus * Aortic arch

Answer 290

* Detect changes in blood pressure * Send signals to the medulla oblongata * Trigger autonomic responses to maintain normal blood pressure

Answer 291

Decrease heart rate and cause vasodilation to lower pressure.

Answer 292

Increase heart rate and cause vasoconstriction to raise pressure.

Answer 293

The ANS plays a critical role in the short-term regulation of blood pressure by rapidly adjusting heart rate, vascular tone, and contractility in response to changes in blood pressure.

Answer 294

* Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) * Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

Answer 295

The SNS is primarily responsible for increasing blood pressure during stress or emergencies (fight-or-flight response).

Answer 296

The SNS increases heart rate by stimulating the SA node of the heart through norepinephrine binding to beta-1 adrenergic receptors.

Answer 297

Increased heart rate raises cardiac output (CO), which in turn raises blood pressure.

Answer 298

The SNS enhances the force of contraction by increasing calcium influx during each action potential.

Answer 299

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels due to SNS stimulation, which increases systemic vascular resistance (SVR) and raises blood pressure.

Answer 300

* Norepinephrine * Epinephrine

Answer 301

Venoconstriction increases venous return to the heart, leading to an increase in preload and stroke volume, further increasing blood pressure.

Answer 302

The PNS is responsible for decreasing blood pressure and promoting a rest-and-digest state.

Answer 303

The vagus nerve releases acetylcholine (ACh), which binds to muscarinic receptors in the heart, causing a reduction in heart rate.

Answer 304

It lowers cardiac output, which can decrease blood pressure.

Answer 305

The PNS has a minor direct effect on vascular smooth muscle compared to the SNS.

Answer 306

The baroreceptor reflex is a mechanism that links the autonomic nervous system to blood pressure regulation by monitoring blood pressure and sending signals to the brainstem.

Answer 307

Baroreceptors are stretched more, increasing afferent signals to the brainstem, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system and inhibits the sympathetic nervous system.

Answer 308

The brainstem activates the sympathetic nervous system and inhibits parasympathetic output.

Answer 309

A negative feedback loop.

Answer 310

vasoconstriction

Answer 311

A crucial mechanism in maintaining short-term blood pressure homeostasis

Answer 312

Rapid changes in blood pressure, such as those caused by standing up quickly or exercising

Answer 313

In the carotid sinus and the aortic arch

Answer 314

Mechanical stretch of the arterial walls

Answer 315

They experience increased stretch, leading to increased firing of action potentials

Answer 316

It processes afferent signals from baroreceptors and coordinates autonomic responses

Answer 317

Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) and vagus nerve (cranial nerve X)

Answer 318

The primary site in the brainstem for receiving input from baroreceptors

Answer 319

Increased firing of baroreceptors, activation of the parasympathetic nervous system, inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system

Answer 320

Decreases heart rate via the vagus nerve

Answer 321

Decreases vasoconstriction and heart contractility

Answer 322

Decreased firing of baroreceptors, inhibition of the parasympathetic nervous system, activation of the sympathetic nervous system

Answer 323

Increases heart rate and contractility

Answer 324

A negative feedback loop

Answer 325

To ensure blood pressure remains within a functional range

Answer 326

The negative feedback mechanism

Answer 327

Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

Answer 328

Short-term blood pressure homeostasis

Answer 329

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System

Answer 330

Juxtaglomerular apparatus in the kidneys

Answer 331

Juxtaglomerular cells (granular cells)

Answer 332

Drop in blood pressure, low sodium concentration, sympathetic nervous system activation

Answer 333

Angiotensinogen

Answer 334

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

Answer 335

Potent vasoconstrictor

Answer 336

Aldosterone

Answer 337

Promotes sodium retention and potassium excretion

Answer 338

Vasoconstriction, increasing systemic vascular resistance and blood pressure

Answer 339

Stimulates thirst sensation and increases release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Answer 340

Increases water reabsorption

Answer 341

Stimulates Na+/K+ ATPase pumps to reabsorb sodium and water

Answer 342

Low blood pressure, low sodium, sympathetic activation

Answer 343

* ACE inhibitors * Angiotensin receptor blockers * Aldosterone antagonists

Answer 344

* Blood pressure * Fluid balance * Electrolyte homeostasis

Answer 345

To regulate blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis, particularly sodium and potassium levels.

Answer 346

Decrease in blood pressure, low sodium levels, or activation of the sympathetic nervous system.

Answer 347

A precursor protein converted into angiotensin I; produced in the liver.

Answer 348

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), primarily in the lungs.

Answer 349

Acts as a potent vasoconstrictor, narrowing blood vessels and increasing systemic vascular resistance.

Answer 350

Stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.

Answer 351

Promotes sodium retention in the distal tubules and collecting ducts.

Answer 352

Water follows by osmosis, increasing blood volume.

Answer 353

Increases blood volume, which in turn increases blood pressure.

Answer 354

Stimulates the hypothalamus to promote thirst sensation and increase ADH secretion.

Answer 355

Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, contributing to blood volume expansion.

Answer 356

Constricts afferent arterioles slightly and constricts efferent arterioles to increase glomerular filtration pressure.

Answer 357

Ensures adequate kidney function despite changes in systemic blood pressure.

Answer 358

electrolyte

Answer 359

Brain, kidneys, and heart.

Answer 360

* Increase blood pressure through vasoconstriction (via angiotensin II) * Regulate sodium and water balance via aldosterone * Increase fluid intake through thirst stimulation and ADH release * Support renal function by regulating GFR

Answer 361

Blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte homeostasis

Answer 362

* Low blood pressure * Low sodium levels * Sympathetic nervous system activation

Answer 363

Juxtaglomerular cells

Answer 364

Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

Answer 365

An inactive precursor that requires further processing to become active

Answer 366

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

Answer 367

Exerts the majority of the RAAS effects

Answer 368

Causes vasoconstriction

Answer 369

Stimulates its release from the adrenal cortex

Answer 370

* Sodium reabsorption * Water retention

Answer 371

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Answer 372

Increases water reabsorption

Answer 373

Enhances its activity

Answer 374

Increased blood volume and elevated blood pressure

Answer 375

* Aldosterone-mediated sodium and water retention * Angiotensin II-induced vasoconstriction * ADH-induced water retention

Answer 376

Sodium and potassium levels

Answer 377

Low blood pressure, low sodium, or sympathetic nervous activation

Answer 378

Water follows sodium by osmosis

Answer 379

Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.

Answer 380

High blood pressure (hypertension).

Answer 381

Angiotensin I.

Answer 382

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).

Answer 383

Vasoconstriction.

Answer 384

Aldosterone.

Answer 385

Increases blood volume.

Answer 386

Stimulates thirst.

Answer 387

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Answer 388

Leads to persistent high blood pressure.

Answer 389

vasoconstriction.

Answer 390

Arterial remodeling.

Answer 391

Increased aldosterone levels.

Answer 392

* Sustained high blood pressure * Headaches * Dizziness * Fatigue

Answer 393

Above 140/90 mmHg.

Answer 394

* Renal artery stenosis * Chronic kidney disease * Hyperaldosteronism * Heart failure * Obesity and diabetes

Answer 395

ACE inhibitors.

Answer 396

Block the action of angiotensin II.

Answer 397

Block the action of aldosterone.

Answer 398

Reduce fluid retention by the kidneys.

Answer 399

* Excessive renin release increases angiotensin II * Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone release * Excess ADH contributes to water retention * Chronic activation results in persistent high blood pressure

Answer 400

Salt intake plays a significant role in regulating blood pressure, fluid balance, and electrolyte levels.

Answer 401

The body perceives a reduction in effective circulating volume, triggering increased renin release from the kidneys.

Answer 402

Angiotensin I.

Answer 403

By ACE in the lungs and other tissues.

Answer 404

* Vasoconstriction of blood vessels * Aldosterone release * Thirst stimulation and ADH release.

Answer 405

Causes vasoconstriction, particularly in afferent arterioles of the kidneys.

Answer 406

Stimulates sodium retention and potassium excretion in the kidneys.

Answer 407

Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, contributing to increased blood volume and blood pressure.

Answer 408

The body responds by increasing sodium levels and effective circulating volume, leading to reduced renin release.

Answer 409

Reduces renin release.

Answer 410

They decrease.

Answer 411

The excretion of excess sodium by the kidneys.

Answer 412

Promotes sodium excretion, lowering blood volume and blood pressure.

Answer 413

Impaired ability to suppress the RAAS and potential hypertension.

Answer 414

Salt-sensitive hypertension.

Answer 415

By regulating sodium balance, blood volume, and blood pressure.

Answer 416

Impaired sodium handling by the kidneys and elevated blood pressure.

Answer 417

A medical condition where blood pressure in the arteries is consistently elevated above normal levels.

Answer 418

Consistently exceeds 130/80 mmHg.

Answer 419

The pressure when the heart beats and pumps blood.

Answer 420

The pressure when the heart is at rest between beats.

Answer 421

Less than 120/80 mmHg.

Answer 422

Systolic BP between 120-129 mmHg and diastolic BP less than 80 mmHg.

Answer 423

Systolic BP between 130-139 mmHg or diastolic BP between 80-89 mmHg.

Answer 424

Systolic BP ≥ 140 mmHg or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg.

Answer 425

Systolic BP > 180 mmHg and/or diastolic BP > 120 mmHg, requiring immediate medical attention.

Answer 426

The most common form of hypertension, accounting for about 90-95% of cases, with no identifiable cause.

Answer 427

* Genetics * Age * Obesity * Physical inactivity * High sodium intake * Excessive alcohol consumption * Chronic stress

Answer 428

Increased peripheral vascular resistance due to narrowed or stiffened arterioles.

Answer 429

High blood pressure caused by an underlying medical condition or external factor, accounting for about 5-10% of cases.

Answer 430

* Kidney disease * Endocrine disorders * Obstructive sleep apnea * Certain medications * Pheochromocytoma * Coarctation of the aorta

Answer 431

Elevated blood pressure that occurs in a clinical setting due to anxiety or stress.

Answer 432

Through ambulatory blood pressure monitoring or home blood pressure monitoring.

Answer 433

When blood pressure appears normal in a clinical setting but is elevated outside of it.

Answer 434

It often goes unnoticed, putting individuals at risk for cardiovascular events.

Answer 435

An emergency situation with extremely high blood pressure.

Answer 436

* Hypertensive Urgency * Hypertensive Emergency

Answer 437

Extremely high blood pressure without evidence of acute target organ damage.

Answer 438

Extremely high blood pressure with evidence of acute organ damage.

Answer 439

Involves an imbalance between cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance.

Answer 440

* Genetic factors * Environmental influences * Dysfunction in blood pressure regulation mechanisms

Answer 441

* Renal sodium retention * Increased sympathetic nervous system activity * Increased renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) activity * Endothelial dysfunction

Answer 442

An underlying condition affecting sodium retention, hormone levels, or vascular tone.

Answer 443

Essential hypertension, also known as primary hypertension, is the most common form of high blood pressure, accounting for approximately 90-95% of all cases.

Answer 444

Sustained high blood pressure without a secondary cause (e.g., kidney disease, hormonal disorders).

Answer 445

Genetic predisposition significantly contributes to the development of essential hypertension, with family history increasing likelihood.

Answer 446

Multiple genes contribute to blood pressure regulation, affecting systems such as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), vascular tone, and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity.

Answer 447

Increased sympathetic tone leads to vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, and increased contractility, raising cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance (SVR).

Answer 448

RAAS overactivity contributes to hypertension by controlling fluid balance, vascular tone, and sodium retention.

Answer 449

Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, which is then converted to angiotensin II by ACE.

Answer 450

* Vasoconstriction of blood vessels * Stimulates aldosterone release * Enhances sympathetic nervous system activity

Answer 451

Impairment of the endothelium's normal vasodilatory response, often characterized by reduced nitric oxide (NO) production.

Answer 452

Excessive salt intake leads to abnormal increases in blood pressure, related to impaired renal sodium handling.

Answer 453

Changes in blood vessel structure due to high blood pressure, including thickening and stiffening of artery walls.

Answer 454

It reduces the arteries' ability to expand and contract, increasing systolic blood pressure and workload on the heart.

Answer 455

Baroreceptors sense blood pressure and regulate it by adjusting heart rate, vascular tone, and renal function.

Answer 456

Excess adipose tissue increases sympathetic nervous system activity, inflammation, and changes in vascular tone.

Answer 457

Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia are linked to hypertension, with insulin having a vasoconstrictive effect.

Answer 458

Prolonged psychological stress leads to sustained sympathetic nervous system activation, contributing to hypertension.

Answer 459

* Sympathetic nervous system overactivity * RAAS overactivity * Endothelial dysfunction * Salt sensitivity * Vascular remodeling and stiffness * Baroreceptor dysfunction

Answer 460

Significant damage to organs such as the heart, kidneys, brain, and eyes, contributing to cardiovascular disease, stroke, kidney failure, and other complications.

Answer 461

A rapid and severe increase in blood pressure that can lead to end-organ damage.

Answer 462

* Hypertensive Emergency * Hypertensive Urgency

Answer 463

Severely elevated blood pressure (>180/120 mmHg) with acute organ damage.

Answer 464

>180/120 mmHg without evidence of acute organ damage.

Answer 465

Immediate medical intervention to lower blood pressure gradually.

Answer 466

The inability of blood vessels to adjust their tone to maintain normal blood flow and pressure.

Answer 467

* Renal artery stenosis * Pheochromocytoma * Increased RAAS activation

Answer 468

Increases heart rate, contractility, and vasoconstriction.

Answer 469

Overactivity leads to vasoconstriction and increased blood volume.

Answer 470

Increased systemic vascular resistance and elevated blood pressure.

Answer 471

Decreased nitric oxide availability, leading to increased vasoconstriction.

Answer 472

Chemicals like epinephrine and norepinephrine that cause vasoconstriction and increased heart rate.

Answer 473

Failure of cerebral autoregulation leading to hyperperfusion and potential stroke.

Answer 474

* Kidney injury leading to fluid retention * Cardiac dysfunction worsening hypertension * Aortic dissection triggered by high blood pressure

Answer 475

* Severe headache * Chest pain * Shortness of breath * Blurred vision * Neurological symptoms * Severe anxiety and diaphoresis

Answer 476

Reduce blood pressure no more than 25% in the first hour.

Answer 477

* Nitroprusside * Labetalol * Nicardipine

Answer 478

Gradual reduction using oral antihypertensive medications without immediate hospital admission.

Answer 479

* Captopril * Lisinopril * Clonidine

Answer 480

It is multifactorial and involves various physiological dysfunctions.

Answer 481

High blood pressure

Answer 482

Approximately 90-95%

Answer 483

* Family history * Obesity * High sodium intake * Physical inactivity * Smoking * Excessive alcohol consumption

Answer 484

High blood pressure caused by another medical condition

Answer 485

About 5-10%

Answer 486

* Chronic Kidney Disease * Endocrine Disorders * Vascular Conditions * Medication Induced

Answer 487

Impaired renal function affecting fluid balance and pressure regulation

Answer 488

* Cushing's syndrome * Hyperaldosteronism * Pheochromocytoma * Thyroid disorders

Answer 489

Coarctation of the aorta

Answer 490

* NSAIDs * Steroids * Oral contraceptives

Answer 491

Less than 120 mm Hg

Answer 492

Less than 80 mm Hg

Answer 493

120-129 mm Hg

Answer 494

Less than 80 mm Hg

Answer 495

130-139 mm Hg

Answer 496

80-89 mm Hg

Answer 497

Lifestyle modifications and/or antihypertensive medications

Answer 498

140 mm Hg or higher

Answer 499

90 mm Hg or higher

Answer 500

Higher than 180 mm Hg

Answer 501

Higher than 120 mm Hg

Answer 502

* Stroke * Heart attack * Acute kidney failure

Answer 503

Sphygmomanometer ## Footnote A sphygmomanometer is a device specifically designed for measuring blood pressure.

Answer 504

* Auscultatory Method * Oscillometric Method ## Footnote The auscultatory method uses a stethoscope to listen for Korotkoff sounds, while the oscillometric method uses automated devices to measure arterial wall oscillations.

Answer 505

Pressure during heartbeats when the heart contracts ## Footnote Systolic pressure is the higher number in a blood pressure reading.

Answer 506

Pressure during heart relaxation ## Footnote Diastolic pressure is the lower number in a blood pressure reading.

Answer 507

Systolic 120-129 mm Hg and diastolic <80 mm Hg ## Footnote This classification helps identify patients who may be at risk for developing hypertension.

Answer 508

Systolic 130-139 mm Hg or diastolic 80-89 mm Hg ## Footnote Stage 1 hypertension indicates a moderate increase in blood pressure.

Answer 509

Systolic ≥140 mm Hg or diastolic ≥90 mm Hg ## Footnote Stage 2 hypertension indicates a more severe increase in blood pressure.

Answer 510

Systolic >180 mm Hg and/or diastolic >120 mm Hg ## Footnote This condition requires immediate medical attention.

Answer 511

At least two separate occasions ## Footnote This helps account for variability in blood pressure readings.

Answer 512

* Family history of hypertension or cardiovascular disease * Lifestyle factors (diet, physical activity, alcohol consumption, smoking) * Presence of symptoms (e.g., headache, dizziness) * Previous diagnoses of conditions like diabetes, kidney disease, or heart disease ## Footnote These factors can help assess the risk and potential causes of hypertension.

Answer 513

* Fundoscopic examination for retinal changes * Cardiovascular exam for heart sounds or murmurs * Examination for signs of renal disease (e.g., edema) ## Footnote Detecting target organ damage is crucial for assessing the severity of hypertension.

Answer 514

* Complete Blood Count (CBC) * Electrolytes * Renal Function Tests (serum creatinine, BUN) * Fasting Blood Glucose * Lipid Profile ## Footnote These tests help identify any underlying conditions or complications related to hypertension.

Answer 515

* Urinalysis * Hormonal Assessments (plasma aldosterone, plasma renin activity) * Imaging (chest X-ray, echocardiogram, renal ultrasound) ## Footnote These tests help identify specific causes of secondary hypertension.

Answer 516

Elevated readings in a clinical setting but normal readings at home ## Footnote This phenomenon can lead to misdiagnosis of hypertension.

Answer 517

Normal readings in a clinical setting but elevated at home ## Footnote This condition can also result in a missed diagnosis of hypertension.

Answer 518

For effective management and prevention of complications related to hypertension ## Footnote Regular monitoring and follow-up are vital for managing individuals diagnosed with hypertension.

Answer 519

Reduce blood pressure (BP) to within a target range and prevent cardiovascular and end-organ damage.

Answer 520

Severity of hypertension, comorbidities, and patient-specific factors.

Answer 521

Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension, emphasizing fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy.

Answer 522

Less than 2,300 mg per day, ideally 1,500 mg per day.

Answer 523

* DASH Diet * Reduce Sodium Intake * Increase Potassium * Limit Alcohol Consumption * Weight Reduction

Answer 524

At least 30 minutes of aerobic exercise most days of the week.

Answer 525

Meditation, deep breathing, and yoga.

Answer 526

Necessary for patients who do not achieve target BP through lifestyle changes alone.

Answer 527

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACE inhibitors).

Answer 528

* Losartan * Valsartan * Olmesartan

Answer 529

Inhibit calcium entry into smooth muscle cells, leading to vasodilation.

Answer 530

Increase renal sodium and water excretion, reducing blood volume and BP.

Answer 531

* Atenolol * Metoprolol * Bisoprolol

Answer 532

More commonly used for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

Answer 533

Directly inhibit renin, reducing the production of angiotensin I and II.

Answer 534

Often used in resistant hypertension or pregnancy-induced hypertension.

Answer 535

Target BP < 130/80 mmHg.

Answer 536

<150/90 mmHg, though <140/90 mmHg is preferred.

Answer 537

To ensure BP is maintained within the target range.

Answer 538

Medication side effects, comorbidities.

Answer 539

Managed with methyldopa, labetalol, or nifedipine; ACE inhibitors and ARBs are contraindicated.

Answer 540

Failure to reach BP goals despite adherence to at least 3 antihypertensive agents, including a diuretic.

Answer 541

Immediate intravenous antihypertensive medications.

Answer 542

* Nitroprusside * Labetalol * Nicardipine

Answer 543

Includes a combination of lifestyle changes and pharmacologic treatments tailored to the individual patient.

Answer 544

ACE inhibitors block the enzyme angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) ## Footnote ACE converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.

Answer 545

Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor that increases blood pressure by narrowing blood vessels and stimulating aldosterone secretion ## Footnote Aldosterone promotes sodium and water retention.

Answer 546

* Enalapril * Lisinopril * Ramipril

Answer 547

ARBs block the angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT1 receptors) ## Footnote This prevents the binding of angiotensin II.

Answer 548

* Losartan * Valsartan * Irbesartan

Answer 549

β-blockers block the β-adrenergic receptors, primarily β1 receptors in the heart ## Footnote Some β-blockers also block β2 receptors in other tissues.

Answer 550

β-blockers reduce heart rate, contractility, and conduction speed ## Footnote This results in negative chronotropy and negative inotropy.

Answer 551

* Metoprolol * Atenolol * Propranolol

Answer 552

Calcium channel blockers inhibit the influx of calcium ions (Ca²⁺) into cells ## Footnote They block L-type calcium channels in smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

Answer 553

Ca2+ Channel Blockers cause vasodilation and decreased systemic vascular resistance, leading to lower blood pressure ## Footnote They also reduce heart rate and contractility.

Answer 554

* Amlodipine * Diltiazem * Verapamil

Answer 555

Thiazide diuretics inhibit the Na+/Cl− cotransporter in the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney ## Footnote This reduces sodium and chloride reabsorption.

Answer 556

Thiazide diuretics increase sodium and water excretion, leading to a reduction in blood volume ## Footnote This helps decrease blood pressure.

Answer 557

* Hydrochlorothiazide * Chlorthalidone * Indapamide

Answer 558

False ## Footnote They both reduce angiotensin II effects.

Answer 559

* Hypertension * Heart failure * Angina * Arrhythmias

Answer 560

A severe elevation in blood pressure, typically systolic BP ≥ 180 mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥ 120 mmHg, associated with acute end-organ damage.

Answer 561

To prevent further complications such as stroke, myocardial infarction, aortic dissection, and acute kidney injury.

Answer 562

Immediate recognition and diagnosis of end-organ damage.

Answer 563

No more than 25% reduction.

Answer 564

* Encephalopathy * Stroke * Myocardial infarction * Heart failure * Acute kidney injury

Answer 565

* Clinical assessment * Measure blood pressure in both arms * Assess for signs of end-organ damage * Initial blood tests * Continuous monitoring of blood pressure

Answer 566

ICU or step-down unit monitoring is often necessary for patients with significant symptoms or complications.

Answer 567

IV Antihypertensive Agents.

Answer 568

A potent vasodilator used for rapid BP reduction, requires monitoring for cyanide toxicity.

Answer 569

A combined α- and β-blocker that reduces both heart rate and systemic vascular resistance.

Answer 570

A calcium channel blocker that reduces arterial pressure through vasodilation.

Answer 571

Aim to reduce BP to 160/100-110 mmHg.

Answer 572

Gradual reduction to normal BP (≤ 140/90 mmHg) can be achieved with oral agents once stable.

Answer 573

* Preeclampsia/eclampsia * Pheochromocytoma * Aortic dissection

Answer 574

* ACE inhibitors * ARBs * Calcium channel blockers * Thiazide diuretics * β-blockers

Answer 575

Rapid reduction of systolic BP to <120 mmHg is essential.

Answer 576

* Hypotension * Cerebral ischemia or infarction * Acute renal failure

Answer 577

Requires rapid but controlled BP reduction with careful monitoring of end-organ function.

Answer 578

* Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) * Heart Failure * Arrhythmias ## Footnote CAD leads to angina, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Heart failure can be with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) or reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). Arrhythmias include an increased risk of atrial fibrillation (AF).

Answer 579

A condition where high blood pressure accelerates atherosclerosis, narrowing and hardening coronary arteries ## Footnote This can lead to angina, myocardial infarction, and heart failure.

Answer 580

Enlargement and thickening of the heart’s left ventricle due to increased workload from high blood pressure ## Footnote LVH can progress to heart failure.

Answer 581

* Stroke * Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) * Dementia ## Footnote Stroke includes ischemic and hemorrhagic types. TIA serves as a warning for future strokes.

Answer 582

A mini-stroke caused by transient reductions in blood flow to the brain ## Footnote It can indicate a higher risk for future strokes.

Answer 583

* Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) * Hypertensive Nephropathy * End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) ## Footnote CKD leads to impaired kidney function, while hypertensive nephropathy involves glomerulosclerosis.

Answer 584

Damage to the blood vessels in the eyes due to high blood pressure, detectable by eye exams ## Footnote Changes can range from mild (arteriolar narrowing) to severe (hemorrhages, exudates).

Answer 585

* Aortic Aneurysm * Aortic Dissection ## Footnote Aortic aneurysms can rupture, while dissection involves tearing of the aortic wall.

Answer 586

* Insulin Resistance * Hyperlipidemia * Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome ## Footnote These conditions significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular events.

Answer 587

* Erectile Dysfunction (ED) * Decreased Libido ## Footnote ED is often compounded by obesity, diabetes, and hypertension medications.

Answer 588

* Preeclampsia * Gestational Hypertension ## Footnote Preeclampsia can lead to serious conditions like eclampsia if untreated.

Answer 589

A severe increase in blood pressure that can lead to life-threatening conditions such as stroke and myocardial infarction ## Footnote It can result in sudden death if not treated promptly.

Answer 590

True ## Footnote It can lead to vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) and dementia.

Answer 591

* Increases risk of life-threatening complications * Affects quality of life * Raises mortality risk ## Footnote Effective management of blood pressure is critical for preventing these outcomes.

Answer 592

A condition characterized by the accumulation of lipids in vessel walls, leading to narrowed and stiffened arteries. ## Footnote It is often accelerated by chronic high blood pressure.

Answer 593

Endothelial injury caused by chronic high blood pressure. ## Footnote This injury leads to the accumulation of LDL cholesterol in the vessel walls.

Answer 594

* Coronary arteries * Cerebral arteries * Peripheral arteries ## Footnote These can lead to ischemic heart disease, stroke, and peripheral arterial disease.

Answer 595

Damage to the intimal layer of the aorta due to increased stress from hypertension, leading to a tear that allows blood to enter the media. ## Footnote This can create a false lumen and may lead to rupture.

Answer 596

Life-threatening bleeding due to rupture of the aorta. ## Footnote This condition is especially dangerous in the ascending aorta.

Answer 597

Thickening of the left ventricular myocardium due to increased workload from hypertension. ## Footnote It results from chronic elevated systemic vascular resistance.

Answer 598

* Diastolic dysfunction * Reduced ability to relax * Potential heart failure ## Footnote LVH can lead to impaired filling of the heart.

Answer 599

A condition where the heart has difficulty pumping blood effectively, often due to chronic hypertension. ## Footnote It can involve both diastolic and systolic dysfunction.

Answer 600

Impaired relaxation and filling of the heart due to stiffened ventricular walls. ## Footnote It is common in patients with hypertension.

Answer 601

Damage to renal vasculature leading to reduced kidney filtration function. ## Footnote It can result in chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease.

Answer 602

Scarring of the glomeruli caused by hypertension. ## Footnote It leads to a reduction in the kidney's ability to filter waste.

Answer 603

Damage to retinal blood vessels caused by chronic hypertension. ## Footnote It can lead to vision loss due to retinal ischemia or macular edema.

Answer 604

* Narrowing of retinal arterioles * Retinal hemorrhages * Cotton wool spots ## Footnote These changes can indicate severe retinal damage.

Answer 605

Hypertension. ## Footnote It increases the risk for both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes.

Answer 606

By promoting atherosclerosis and thrombus formation that blocks blood flow to the brain. ## Footnote Elevated blood pressure is a significant risk factor.

Answer 607

Rupture of a weakened blood vessel in the brain. ## Footnote This can occur due to microaneurysms or arteriolosclerosis.

Answer 608

Small, deep brain infarcts associated with chronic hypertension. ## Footnote They can contribute to cognitive impairment.

Answer 609

* Atherosclerosis * Aortic Dissection * Left Ventricular Hypertrophy * Heart Failure * Nephropathy * Retinopathy * Stroke ## Footnote These complications highlight the importance of early diagnosis and management.