Utvecklingspsykologi Flashcards
1
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Regulation factor
A
A substance in the environment that disables the inhibition that non-protein-coding DNA exerts on the coding DNA.
2
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Pleiotropic
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Genes that code for more than just one trait
3
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Range of reaction
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The span within which a person’s abilities may develop based on the environment to which their genes are subjected.
4
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Canalization
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When the range of reaction is narrow. The pathways through which a canalized trait may be developed are few.
5
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Passive genetic-environmental correlation
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Parents with certain genetic predispositions may create homes that suit these predispositions and encourage the inherited ones of their children.
6
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Evocative genetic-environmental correlation
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Inborn tendencies that are expressed and responded to by the social environment might be reinforced, creating a circuit where the tendency is strengthened and the genetic predisposition is magnified.
7
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Active genetic-environmental correlation
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Genetic predispositions encourage us to seek out environments in which these predispositions are valuable. People with aggressive predispositions tend to sign up for martial arts classes instead of chess. This niche picking magnifies the genetic predisposition.
8
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Heritability factors
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Percentage estimates of the extent to which heritability contributes to a particular ability or type of behavior.
9
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Equal environment assumption
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The assumption on which twin studies depend - that twin studies receive the same environmental exposure.
10
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Candidate gene
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A gene that codes a specific trait.
11
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Polygenicity
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A trait is influenced by many genes
12
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Germinal stage
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Period of the zygote
13
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Zygote
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Fertilized egg
14
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Gestation
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The period during which development in the uterus occurs
15
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Amniotic sac
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Thin membrane containing amniotic fluid that protects the embryo from shocks and physical damage. Similar to CSF in the brain.
16
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Cephalocaudal development
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Development proceeding from head to trunk and legs.
17
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Proximal-distal development
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Proximal(towards the centre) distal (away from the centre).
This development describes the development starting in the centre and moving outwards towards the arms and legs
18
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Foetus
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From third month of gestation to delivery
19
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Teratology
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The study of the origins of prenatal abnormalities
20
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Congenital
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Present from birth, with birth
21
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Teratogen
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Environmental factors that can lead to congenital abnormalities
22
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Chromosomal abnormality
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Morphological or numerical abnormalitity in chromosomes, either autosomes or sex chromosome or both
23
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Teratogenesis
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The process causing defects and abnormalities in embryos and foetuses
24
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Perinatal complications
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Issues that arise shortly before, during or shortly after delivery
25
Catch-up growth
Catching up to normal physical growth
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Catch-up growth
Catching up to normal physical growth
27
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
28
Ontogeny/Ontogenisis
The process of an organism's formation, from the fertilization of an egg to adulthood.
29
Phylogeny
The history of evolution of a species.
30
Proliferation (Biology)
Rapid reproduction of cells
31
Object constancy
Recognizing an object at varying distances, under different lighting and at varying angles
32
Natural pedagogy
Evolution has taught infants to innately exhibit certain behaviors. One of which is to prefer to direct gaze towards faces whose eyes are directed towards the infant.
33
Predictive control
We are able to predict immediate future events and plan accordingly, coordinating motoric movements to adapt in our ever-changing environments.
This develops as an interplay between neural development and experience.
34
Overextension
Using one word for too many objects.
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Underextension
Using one word in a restricted and individualistic manner.
36
Holophrase
Single word utterances that seem to represent a complete thought.
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Telegraphic speech
Few words used to convey messages, sort of like telegrams used to be.
38
Core knowledge
Knowledge that we are born with. (Evolutionary perspective) We have knowledge systems with specific applications. Some things we are born with and are able to use right from the beginning. The development is domain-specific.
39
Domain-specific
Domain general
Domain specific -The acquisition of a specific skill is facilitated by a specific cognitive skill. I.e mathematics is learned through one cognitive function, and language through another.
Domain general: The acquisition of different skills are facilitated through the same broad set of cognitive skills. Language and mathematics are underlined by the same cognitive functions.
40
Assimilation
Applying what you know from before to new experiences.
These new experiences are then added to existing schemas that expand.
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Accomodation
Creating new ways to relate to new knowledge. Often by altering our schemas that we put this newfound knowledge into.
42
Disequilibrium
When there is a cognitive unbalance. This leads to accomodation.
43
Sensomotoric stage 0-2 years
Children explore their surroundings using their physical abilities. They may crawl around, put things in their mouth, and use haptic perception to learn about their reality. But a notion of object permanence emerges during this stage.
The physical movements become goal-oriented.
This stage is sublined by 6 undercategories.
44
Pre-operational 2-6 years
The child is not yet able to logically process objects. But they are able to think in symbolic terms. eg. pictures and words to represent the world. They can think and process separate mental objects but they cannot use logic to transform, separate or combine ideas.
45
Concrete Operational stage 6-12 years
The child is able to use logic to process ideas and objects. But they cannot yet logically process abstract ideas that do not have a concrete presence. Are able to understand concepts such as reversibility, conservation and classification.
During this stage decentration occurs aswell.
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Formal operational stage 12 years-
Able to use logical processing to process abstract notions aswell that do not have a concrete presence. Complex logical abilites form, judgement is developed and conceptualization develops.
Testing hypothesis, solving problems. Imagining alternative realities.
47
Decentration
A shift of center of perception away from the child. This is when the egocentricism starts to fade away and children are able to think of other's perceptions as well.
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Conservation
The ability to understand that the volume of something doesn't change just because it's appearence does. Pouring water from one beaker that differs in appearence to the next one does not change the volume
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Reversibility
The understanding that allows the reversing of a sequence of events or restores the changed state of affairs into the original condition. Pouring a glass of milk into a bottle can be reversed by pouring the milk back into the bottle.
50
Zone of Proximal Development
The area in which a childs abilities are developed. Difference between what they know and what they can learn with adult guidance or capable peers.
51
Mediator
A tool that is used to support and extend cognition. Language is one mediator
52
Scaffolding
A learning technique in which the teacher adjusts their participation and guidance in accordance with the knowledge and abilities of the learner.
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Reciprocal instruction
Peer to peer instructions where the teacher either uses scaffolding or is involved and actively learning.
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Guided participation
Adults and teachers involved in the task and doing it whilst teaching it.
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Elementary mental functions
Involuntary remembering aswell as basic perception and attention.
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Higher mental functions
Voluntary remembering and more advanced perception and attention.
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Intent community participation
The kids are engaged in real, meaningful and cultural activies and actually making a difference. This engagement is increased with more expertise and experience.
58
Piaget's constructivism
Children all develop through the same stages at around the same age and in one sequence.
Criticized because it neglects social-cultural factors affecting cognitive development.
Overestimates adolescent abilities and underestimates infants' abilities.
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Vygotsky's social cognitive development
All learning and ideas originate from social interaction with our surroundings.
Criticized for being too general, and not being able to make any predictions. Also a lack of clarity regarding physical, social and emotional competence affect the development. What if someone is physically impaired or mentally impaired or has suffered traumas, how does this affect?
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Dishabituation
Reacting to novel stimulus more than to habituated stimulus
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Active intermodal matching
The act of trying to match the feeling of the movement of gesture to that which is being observed.
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Cross-modal ability
The ability to identify or perform something identified with one modality using another modality. Eg seeing someone dance, allows us to use our tactical perception to dance.
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Associative learning
Learning through associating one stimulus to a response. Either classical or operational conditioning can be used to elicit associative learning.
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Script
Basic outline for how to perform routine activites such as bathing, dressing, etc. Cognitive tool used to free up mental space for new activities and events.
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Generalization
Using the strategy used to solve one problem for solving another problem.
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Transitive inferences
Knowing the relationship between objects and using this knowledge to gauge the relationship between other objects.
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Organic retardation
Mental retardation that is the result of genetic problems.
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Familial retardation
Retardation as a result of a result of factors in the childhood and infancy, such as trauma, disease etc.
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Sensitive period
A period in which development of an ability or trait is optimal but if the eliciting stimulus for the development comes at another age, normal development is still possible.
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Cross-sectional design
Comparing people of different ages at the same time.
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Cohorts
People born in different historical times.
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Longitudinal design
Testing the same person for the same factor over a long period of time, repeatedly.
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Sequential design
Testing people from different groups at the same time, and then again when they're older.
74
Animism
Attributing life to inanimate objects.
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Violation of expectation-test
Presenting an impossible event and a possible event and seeing if the infant understands the concept behind the events by seeing if the infant looks more at the impossible event.
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Theory of mind
Understanding of the mind and it's different components as well as understanding that other's have a different set of perceptions, beliefs, intentions, ideas, thoughts and perspectives.
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Temperament
A biologically programmed style of emotionally reacting and behaving in response to the environment.
Partially innate but develops with interaction with the environment. Relatively stable over time.
78
Imprinting
A sudden, biologically primed attachment that happens early on.
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Attachment
The emotional bond between child and primary caregivers.
80
Secure attachment
Child explores surroundings when caregiver is present. Returns to caregiver as a secure base. Some crying might happen at separation, but is quickly comforted upon reunion.
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Insecure resistant
May show signs of demanding attention yet rejecting approaches by the caregiver. Angry at caregiver when they leave yet reluctant to be comforted upon reunion.
82
Insecure-avoidant
Avoids mother, does not cry upon separation. Avoids mother upon reunion aswell.
83
Disorganized attachment
Inconsistent and disorganized behavior exhibited by the child. A lot of freezing and inability to cope with situations. Arises from abuse and lack of reliability from caregivers.
84
Syntax
Rules for how words are put together to make meaningful sentences.
85
Pragmatik
Rules for when we use a specific type of language and when that isn't appropriate. Kids in school speak different than kids at playground.
86
Prelinguistic language
Vocalizations, yelling, babbling, gestures, pointing, crying
87
Non-discrimination of sounds from different languages
Between 0-12 infants do not discriminate between different languages and are able to detect sounds from any language. After this period children build a preference and start to only identify their mother tongue.
88
Categorical speech perception
After 6-8 months a discrimination of sounds that do not to the mother tongue stops.
89
Child-directed Speech CDS: Motherese, Babytalk
High-pitched talk, short words, simple words, lots of mimicking the child and overarticulating words
90
Comprehensive input(CI)
Type of language that is able to be understood by child. Between 6 months and 4 years it is suitable to use CI.
Between 6 months and 18 months CI is optimal.
Until 5 years of age there is a critical period in which we need CI to develop language. After 5 years of age the benefit of CI is limited and so are the possibilites of developing functional speech.
91
Joint attention
The child and parent are both directing attention at same object.
Very important for language development. This is what enables functional speech later on.
92
Protodeclarative gestures
Gestures that are used to make the adult direct attention at something that infant wants them to attend to. Also used to comment or remark on something.
93
Protoimperative gestures
Gestures used to make the adult do something. eg. pointing at a ball or toy so that the adult gives it to the infant.
94
First word
12 months, between 9-18 months is typical development.
Concrete objects, nouns
Simple actions, verbs
Simple descriptions, adjectives2
95
Fast-mapping
The ability to connect a word to an underlying concept after only a few coincidences or encoding moments.
96
Turnabout
Taking turns, and adding something to the conversation.
97
Shading
Gradual and smooth transition to new subjects, not abrupt switching.
98
Illocutionary intent
What is actually meant by what is said? Reading between the lines.
99
Behaviorism's take on language
A matter of reinforcing correct language use. All words are supposedly learnt by child saying something and then receiving reinforcement from parent or surroundings. Incorrect language is extinguished by lack of reward or reinforcement.
Imitation - child speaks as is spoken in surroundings.
100
Critique against behaviorism
10 000 words in only a couple of years cannot be result of reinforcement.
There are universal structures to how grammar is developed around the world in kids language use.
Children are seen as passive recipients. They actually produce and creatively make up a lot of language aswell.
101
Nativistic approach to language development
We have a LAD, language acquisiton device that is an innate module that's responsibile for our language development. Universal and the same for all natural languages.
102
Innateness hypothesis
Children are born with at least some degree of innate language structure, and this structure is filled in like a blueprint with the details.
103
Poverty of stimulus argument (POS)
Children are not exposed to a rich enough data to account for the language they acquire. This is evidence contrary to empiristic belief that we learn everything from our surroundings.
104
Critique against nativistic approach
Not all grammar is innate. It continues to develop throughout childhood and adolesence.
Chomsky said that cognition is irrelevant for language development which is clearly wrong.
BUT, it is generally accepted that humans are born with a predisposition for language.
105
Interactionism
Both innate abilitites and environment interact to shape our language development. We are predisposed to learn language but we need a rich external surrounding to supply us with enriching stimulus in order to learn languages. Kids who live their whole lives without interacting with humans may be able to develop some language skills but rarely more than a few words.
Biology, cognition and social components may have different effects on language development.
106
Homozygote/Heterozygote
Homozygote is when the gene is made up of two identical alleles.
Heterozygote is when the gene is made up of one dominant and one recessive gene.
107
Order of development
The functions and structures necessary for life are developed first, and then the rest come after.
The latter developments often inhibit earlier developed functions, as this ties to evolution. We have brainparts shared by other species, but humans have further developed the brains to inhibit previous functions.
Voluntary movements replace reflexes and involuntary movement.
108
Synaptic pruning
Synapses that are used remain and their structures change to favor faster and more efficient communication. This leads to synapses' structures change according to the membranes that it is connected to.
Less used synapses are pruned and die off. Some even die through apoptosis, programmed cell death.
109
Epigenetic regulation
Genes can be turned off or on. The cell can also divide into new specializied cells such as skin or hair cells.
110
Luftteorier
Biologiskt förprogrammerade strukturer i nervsystemet styr kroppens rörelser oavsett var barnet är. Mognadsteorier, maturation
111
Markteorier(Dynamiska teorier)
Motoriken utvecklas i samspel mellan den egna kroppens förmågor samt förutsättningar och den fysiska miljön som vi befinner oss i. Påverkas också av hållning, och position samt handlingsmöjligheter. Om vi ligger ner rör vi oss på ett sätt, om vi står rör vi oss på ett annat.
Dynamisk utveckling, erfarenheten är väldigt viktig för utvecklingen. Naturligt urval via erfarenhet, det som är användbart för motoriken förbättras, det som inte behövs faller bort.
112
Neurongruppteorin (markteori)
Synapserna i motoriska celler(primära neurongrupper) är resultat av biologisk utveckling via evolution. Men de kan påverkas av erfarenhet. Informationen från muskler kan påverka hjärnans utveckling.
113
Första variationsfasen (neurongruppteorin)
Barns första rörelsemönster, generella rörelsemönster och de är biologiskt programmerade men behöver sedan finslipas via erfarenhet.
Genom rörelsevariation väljs de rörelser som är bäst lämpade för att nå sina mål. Barn har alltså många rörelser att välja mellan och med tiden väljs de mest effektiva ut.
114
Selektionsfaser
Fasåldrar varierar för olika förmågor. Att krypa är en fas som kommer före att gå.
115
Sekundär variationsfas
Finslipning av de första rörelsemönstrena. Vissa sätt att krypa är mer effektiva än andra. Alltså förbättras de originella grövre rörelsemönstrena för fungera bättre för ändamålet.
116
Handling och kroppslig kognition
Kroppen är det som är grunden för de handlingar och rörelsemöjligheter vi har. Kroppens utformning och rörelser har ett tätt samband med handlingar och handlingsmöjligheter.
Motorisk utveckling är ett samspel mellan kroppen och dess utformning och kapacitet samt den yttre fysiska världen och de handlingsmöjligheter som finns till hands.
Handling och perception är grunden för utveckling av kroppslig kognition.
117
Motorisk utveckling
En anpassningsprocess där barnets kropp utvecklas i förhållande till fysisk kapacitet, men även perception av sin omgivning och vad som anses vara möjligt att göra men även det som anses vara viktigt att göra ur ett socialt perspektiv.
Handlingen är kärnan i denna utveckling. Den utvecklar vår perception, kognition, motorik och motivation att göra saker. Men alla dessa saker utvecklar också handlingen och våra handlingsmöjligheter. Allting samspelar och har en inverkan på varandra.
Utvecklingen handlar om att göra, inte om att lyckas med det mål som sattes eller söktes uppfyllas.
118
Från reflexer till handlingar
Reflexer är det sätt som barn till en början rör sig. De är omedvetna och automatiska beteenden som styr barnets kropp. Utlöses av ett nyckelstimulus och ger upphov till samma respons varje gång. De går inte att ändra.
Handlingar är en utveckling av den initiella reflexen och som styrs av en medveten och motiverad individ som har ett mål i åtanke. De ändras baserat på målet och vad som avses åstadkommas. Olika handlingar kan leda till samma mål.
119
Reflexer
Vissa reflexer är faktiskt inte reflexer utan handlingssystem som aktiveras av vissa yttre faktorer och stimuli. Gradvis förlorar de sin reflexmässiga karaktär och går över i medveten handling.
120
Grovmotorik
Stora rörelsemönster. Röra armarna och benen är grovmotorik. Även kroppshållning och position samt förflyttning av den egna kroppen. Prediktiv kontroll viktig för både grov- och finmotorik. Kroppen koordinerar dessa rörelser i förhållande till rådande omständigheter i miljön.
121
Finmotorik
Mindre haptiska rörelser som är mer delikata. Skriva med en penna, pincettgrepp, peka osv.
Utvecklingen här sker med bättre koordination och precision i fingrarna samt förbättrad prediktiv kontroll. Hur hårt något ska hållas eller hur handen ska formas samtidigt som armen rör sig mot objektet.
122
Proprioceptionens roll i motorik
Att inte se något betyder inte att man inte kan greppa efter det. Även att barnet inte ser sin arm eller hand innebär inte att man inte kan röra den för att ta något. Kroppen tar hjälp av signaler från muskler för att koordinera handrörelse eller armen och på så sätt ändå lyckas utföra motoriska handlingar.
123
Basemotioner
Medfödda emotioner. Glädje, ilska, ledsamhet etc. Triggas automatiskt och kräver ej medvetenhet eller reflektion.
124
Sekundära emotioner
Kräver självmedvetenhet och eftertanke. Skam, skuld osv. Femåringar behöver en annan persons närvaro för att kunna skuld. 11-åring känner skuld även när den är ensam.
125
Socialt refererande
När man är osäker på hur man ska bete sig tittar man på de i sin omgivning för ledtrådar. Barn tittar ofta på sin mamma för tips. Stranger distress kan förstärkas om mamman reagerar negativt på främlingen.
126
Thomas & Chess temperamentsmodell
Easy: Positivt humör, anpassningsbar och tydlig rytm.(Sover och äter regelbundet)
Difficult: Negativt humör, ogillar förändring och reagerar starkt. Oregelbunden sömn och matvanor.
Slow to warm up: Försiktiga barn som reagerar mildare, både pos/neg reaktion. Behöver tid för att vänja sig men sedan normalt beteende.
127
Goodness of fit
Temperamentet påverkas av det som miljön efterfrågar. Är det en stressig miljö kan barnet utveckla negativt temperament. Är föräldrarna lugna och har en sensitive care-stil så är det lätt att vara glad och positiv.
Samma om skolmiljön är aggressiv kan det vara en överlevnadsfunktion att utveckla aggressivt temperament.
128
Mary Rothbarts temperamentsmodell
Första året kännetecknas av negativ affekt och extraversion. Ingen medveten reglering.
Tredje året är mer medveten reglering av känslor.
129
Reglering av känslor
Går från extern(vårdnadshavare) reglering till intern.
Först är det vårdnadshavarna som reagerar på barnets signaler och emotionella uttryck och tar hand om barnet. Matar, lägger på kvällarna osv. Barnet gör ingen medveten självreglering vid detta stadie.
Sedan går det över till medveten självreglering där barnet inser att det är hungrigt och därför äter. Eller är trött och därför vill sova.
130
Anknytningsteorin
Inte föda som är det viktigaste. Ur evolutionärt perspektiv är det inlärning och överlevnad som är avgörande för att ett barn knyter an till vårdnadshavare.
131
Tre aspekter som främjar anknytning
Leenden och respons. Barn som har AP som ler mot dem har större benägenhet att knyta an till dem än de som inte får leenden mot sig.
Socialt refererande - Barnet lär sig saker om verkligheten och miljön via föräldrarnas agerande socialt men även bara i hur de utför handlingar som att äta, eller städa osv. Detta stärker barnets anknytning till föräldern. Därför viktigt med en närvarande förälder som är engagerad.
Föräldrasensitivitet. Här kommer närvaro och engagemang in igen. En förälder som är kall och okänslig och som inte är lyhörd på barnets behov och kommunikation hämmar anknytningsprocessen och kan leda till att barnet utveckar disfunktionell anknytning.
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Föräldrarstil och anknytningsstil
Trygg anknytning: Lyhörd förälder
Undvikande anknytning: Avvisande förälder. Undviker för att föräldern ändå bara avvisar barnet.
Ambivalent anknytning - Då föräldern är inkonsekvent, bara närvarande ibland och ibland emotionellt frånvarande.
133
Internal working model
Kommer från anknytningsupplevelsen. Det är barnets uppfattning om sin plats i världen, sitt värde, hur mycket de kan förvänta sig av omvärlden i förhållande till sitt värde.
