utilitarianism Flashcards
What is utilitarianism based on?
The greatest happiness principle. It is also based on the concept of utility- meaning usefulness. Utilitarianism thus is a system of morality concerned with what is the most useful thing to do.
What is the greatest happiness principle?
The greatest happiness for the greatest number.
What did Jeremy Bentham equate happiness with?
Bentham equated happiness with pleasure and the absence of pain. This was an empirical observation - people desire pleasure and seek to avoid pain.
What did Jeremy Bentham believe we are ruled by?
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) stated that naturally we are ruled by two key things - pleasure and pain - two basic instincts. 'Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do.' (Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation, 1789)
What did Jeremy Bentham believe was needed to figure out the right course of action?
Bentham said that we need to look at the possible things we might do and the various outcomes and calculate how much pleasure and pain they might create, finally choosing the one that best maximises pleasure and minimises pain. His approach is therefore quantitative.He said we need to consider seven different factors, his Hedonic Calculus
What did his Hedonic Calculus include?
Remoteness – how near it is Purity – how free from pain it is Richness – to what extent it will lead to other pleasures Intensity – how powerful it is Certainty – how likely it is to result Extent – how many people it affects Duration – how long it lasts
What did Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism result in?
Bentham’s theories led to extensive social reform affecting Parliament, criminal law, the jury system, prisons, savings banks, cheap postage etc, etc. What was revolutionary about Bentham’s theory was that it resulted in all people being considered when making laws.
How did John Stuart Mill adapt utilitarianism?
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was uncomfortable with some of the implications of Bentham’s Utilitarianism. He suggested that utilitarian principles could be used to make ‘rules of thumb’ to live by. He took a qualitative approach - some pleasures are more valuable than others.
How did John Stuart Mill divide pleasures?
He divided pleasures into higher pleasures and lower pleasures. Higher pleasures are things that satisfy the mind; lower pleasures are things that satisfy the body. He said that it is ‘better to be a human being dissatisfied rather than being a pig satisfied; better to be Socretes dissatisfied than a fool satisfied’. (J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, 1863) Mill felt that we should aim not for pleasure but for happiness - the general happiness of society.
What is act utilitarianism and how does it work?
You look at an action to determine what is moral, and from this general rules can be derived. By deciding how to act in a specific case, the general rule can be derived. This rule is only a guideline, and should be discarded if doing so will bring about more happiness
What is the criticism of act utilitarianism?
it is impossible to make the sorts of calculations it requires, although Bentham talked of a ‘rule of thumb’ which meant that you could repeat a previous decision under similar circumstances. Another is that people need rules - if you allow people to lie, steal etc. this could become too great a temptation e.g. to lie to avoid looking bad rather than because it genuinely brought better consequences.
What is the advantage of act utilitarianism?
On the plus side, it has most integrity, as it allows you to stick with the greatest happiness principle unswervingly – simply do whatever brings the most happiness in any given situation.
What is rule utilitarianism and how does it work?
Some general principles are formulated. From these, certain actions will be ruled out as unacceptable. The principle of utility is therefore applied to a rule, so the rule will hold if in general following it leads to greater happiness. This means that in an individual case, even though an injustice might bring about greater happiness, if it goes against the general principle that injustice tends to lead to misery and a reduction in happiness, it is deemed wrong.
What form of utilitarianism is Bentham seen as?
Bentham is generally seen as an Act Utilitarian, as the Greatest Happiness Principle seems to demand. As we saw, he is open to the criticism that Utilitarianism goes against justice and human rights, as it allows abuses of rights if they bring enough happiness.
In what ways can Mill be seen to be a rule utilitarianism?
Mill may be seen as a Rule Utilitarian, as he clearly thinks certain rules have a Utilitarian justification. In his book ‘Utilitarianism’, Mill defends the idea of rights:
“To have a right, then, is, I conceive, to have something which society ought to defend me in the possession of. If the objector goes on to ask, why it ought? I can give him no other reason than general utility.”
Mill’s belief in individual sovereignty could be justified by a Rule Utilitarian
In what ways could Mill be seen to be an act utilitarianism?
Ultimately, Mill would break a rule if breaking it lead to the greatest happiness. Elsewhere in the book, Mill says:
"...to save a life, it may not only be allowable, but a duty, to steal, or take by force, the necessary food or medicine, or to kidnap, and compel to officiate, the only qualified medical practitioner."
How do most people view Mill?
Peter Vardy says most people view Mill as an act utilitarian. Others describe him as a ‘soft’ Rule Utilitarian, ‘Hard’ Rule Utilitarians would disagree with breaking a rule even if doing so led to the greater good. Many criticise ‘soft’ Rule Utilitarians, saying that this is effectively the same as Act Utilitarianism.
What did Mill believe about the individual having sovereign over himself?
Mill strongly believed that the individual is sovereign over himself, which is an unusual principle for a Utilitarian! This means that, for example, we should allow people to smoke in private (banning smoking is an attack on the individual’s sovereignty) even though smoking leads to terrible illness
What are some of the ways that Utilitarianism has been adapted?
Hare – preferences: the morally right action is the one that maximizes that satisfaction of the preferences of all those involved.
Sidgwick – motives: it is the motive (intending to bring about the greatest good) rather than the outcome that is good
Singer – interests: you need to look at what is in the best interests of those affected (some people call Singer a ‘welfare Utilitarian’)
What are the criticisms of the hedonic calculus?
Unpredictable - You can’t know the future, and things rarely turn out as we think they will. It cannot be right to judge an action right or wrong based on outcomes that are down to chance.
Incalculable - Even if you knew exactly what would happen, it is impossible to add up all of the pain and pleasure resulting from a course of action. There’s simply too much to calculate
Immeasurable - A more fundamental flaw. Even with the simplest event - choosing whether to buy a toy or a magazine for a child - it is impossible to decide on a value to give for happiness. Is the joy of reading a magazine more intense than the joy of playing with a toy? Pleasure cannot be measured, so the idea of adding it all up doesn’t work.
What are the criticisms of Mill’s utilitarianism?
How do you decide whether white-water rafting is a higher-level pleasure than listening to Beethoven played live or eating an Indian takeaway? Mills theory seeks to reduce everything to a consideration of happiness, when moral decisions are actually a lot more complicated than that. It also still allows for great injustices to be carried out just as long as the greatest good is served.
What are the advantages of Bentham’s utilitarianism?
It is reasonable to link morality with the pursuit of happiness and the avoidance of pain and misery.
It is also natural to consider the consequences of our actions when deciding on what to do.
What are the criticisms of Bentham’s utilitarianism?
You cannot predict the future so the calculations cannot always be accurate.
Pain can be good and pleasure can be bad, therefore utilitarianism can be contradicted.
There are certain things that are intrinsically good or bad, so there is no reason to do calculations each time.
Should animals be considered in the equation? The environment?
Some would say that we have a particular obligation to our family.
The majority may sometimes be corrupt (for example two prison guards who got pleasure out of torturing a prisoner might be allowed to do it under Bentham’s Utilitarianism).
What are the general advantages of utilitarianism?
A large number of people benefit as the principal is greatest good for the greatest number.
Mill’s Utilitarianism promotes general societal happiness and it is natural to see physical and mental pleasures are different.
It is natural to consider consequences, so it is easy to use Hedonic Calculus.
It is applicable to real-life situations because it doesn’t generalise and recognises the complexity of life.
What are the general disadvantages of utilitarianism?
We do not know the consequences of our actions.
Strong rule utilitarianism is not really sticking by utilitarianism but is absolutist and nothing will benefit the greater good in certain situations.
Weak rule utilitarianism becomes the same as Act utilitarianism, so is worse for minorities as the majority always rules.
It is impractical to calculate what you should do to such an extent in day-to-day life.
How would you apply Bentham’s utilitarianism to a real life situation?
Using the hedonic calculus, you would run the two options (such as to abort or not to abort) and compare the differences in pain and pleasure. Obviously it’s very dificult to decide which decision would cause the most pleasure and least pain, but in an exam you get marks for pointing things like that out! Don’t feel you have to resolve the issue as long as you’ve done what you’ve been asked to. It’s a problem with the theory, not with you
How would Mill and Bentham be different on abortion in terms of disability?
Bentham would consider physical disabilities a major drawback, as they rule out many pleasures. Mill wouldn’t worry about these lower pleasures so much, as long as the mind was not affected. However, in the case of a fetus with learning difficulties, Mill would see this as a real problem, whereas Bentham would ask “Can they still enjoy life?”
What sort of theory is utilitarianism?
It is Hedonistic - it is centered around pleasure.
As you look at all the different possible outcomes of a situation to see where pleasure and pain will be balanced the best, it is consequentialist or teleological.
As the outcome of a different ethical question will be different each time, it is relativist though rule utilitarian would be absolutist.
What is preference utilitarianism?
Preference utilitarianism is a variant of utilitarianism by Peter Singer which defines utility in terms of preference satisfaction. For preference utilitarians, the moral course of action is the one that results in the most preference satisfaction.
What are the criticisms of utilitarianism?
Pleasure is not the highest form that people aspire to.
Utilitarianism infers that when you bring your wages home you should only spend them on yourself or your family if they wouldn’t bring greater pleasure elsewhere. This is impractical.
W.D. Ross argued that utilitarism is a single-factor-moral theory- life’s ethical dilemmas cannot be answered with a simple calculus that balances outcomes.
What does Peter Singer believe about abortion?
in cases of abortion, the views of the parent (however selfish or not, as the case may be) are prioritised over those of the fetus, without recourse to any (perceived) rights (here, the “right to life”). There are, he writes in regard to killing in general, times when “the preference of the victim could sometimes be outweighed by the preferences of others”. Singer does, however, still place a high value on the life of rational beings, since killing them does not infringe upon just one of their preferences, but “a wide range of the most central and significant preferences a being can have”.
