Utilitarianism

Question 1

Hedonism - Bentham

Answer 1

“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.”

Question 2

The Hedonic Calculus

Answer 2

Intensity: how strong will the pleasure be? - the stronger the better.
Duration: how long the pleasure will last? - the longer the better.
Certainty: how likely it is the pleasure will happen? - the more likely the better.
Remoteness: how close is the pleasure? – the present is better than the future
Richness (a.k.a. Fecundity): will the pleasure be repeated or lead on to other pleasures? – the more knock-on pleasure the better
Purity: will our actions bring pure pleasure or is it mixed with pain? - the more pain produced, the less pure the pleasure will be.
Extent: how many people will experience the pleasure? - the more the better.

Question 3

Pleasure - Bentham

Answer 3

“The quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry.”

Question 4

Animal testing and utilitarianism

Answer 4

Examine the particular situation and specific illnesses / conditions that animals are being tested on for.
For example, 7.6 million people each year die from cancer so research on animals according to a utilitarian perspective may be worthwhile as it has the ability to produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number. Yet there are many conditions that are much less serious and so we may not consider it appropriate to experiment on animals for that purpose.
Using animals for research to cure diseases such as cancer also reflects the consequentialist and teleological nature of utilitarianism.

Question 5

Animal testing - intensity

Answer 5

The pain may be quite intense for the animal, particularly as they may have a low quality of life.
However, if for instance a cure for cancer was to be found there would be little doubt that saving millions of loved ones a year would also bring an intense amount of pleasure.

Question 6

Animal testing - duration

Answer 6

The happiness of saving a loved one from what today is an incurable disease could last a lifetime. Often this may in part be due to animal testing. On the other hand the animals pain would soon be over as they are soon euthanised after research is complete.

Question 7

Animal testing - certainty

Answer 7

By definition a test or an experiment is to find evidence for something that we are not actually certain about but simply suspect.
Accordingly medical testing on animals would not score too highly on this scale of the hedonic calculus.

Question 8

Animal testing - propinquity

Answer 8

The immediate impact may seem cruel and painful to subject an animal to painful experimental trials, however in the long run it will yield great benefits to a large number of people, but this is a more remote pleasure.

Question 9

Animal testing - fecundity

Answer 9

Medical research using animals will lead further pleasures for a great number of people.
However this will require more animals for medical research and pain for them.

Question 10

Animal testing - purity

Answer 10

Medical research involves both pain for the animal and pleasure for the human so it can not be considered a pure action.

Question 11

Animal testing - extent

Answer 11

Animal research has helped with vital vaccines, cures for disfigurement and cancer treatments that help save peoples lives. The extent is exceptionally wide reaching and so would be approved by utilitarian principles. Even animals themselves have benefited.
However, how many animals have to feel pain in order for us to arrive at this position?

Question 12

Higher vs lower pleasures

Answer 12

Higher Pleasures = pleasures of the mind e.g. having friends, aesthetic appreciation, forgiveness, love etc.
Lower Pleasures = pleasures of the body e.g. violence, sex, indulging in food or drink etc.

“It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is only because they only know their own side of the question.” - Mill

Question 13

Good vs bad actions

Answer 13

Ethically good action = Following a rule that creates the maximum amount of happiness for the maximum number of people in society.
Ethically bad action = Breaking a rule that creates the maximum amount of happiness for the maximum number of people in society.

Question 14

Harm principle

Answer 14

“The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.” - Mill

Question 15

Animal testing and rule utilitarianism

Answer 15

Provided the suffering of the animals is outweighed by the overall quantity and intensity of happiness for the people then it should be allowed.
Strong rule utilitarianism would always stick to this rule and never deviate from this principle as historically it has always fulfilled the principle of utility (greatest happiness principle).
Weak rule utilitarianism would on occasion allow us to deviate from this rule. For example, if alternative methods of medicine can be developed that do not involve the experimentation on animals. Here the principle of utility would be fulfilled if we do not experiment on animals.

Question 16

Nuclear deterrence - intensity

Answer 16

An end to all conflict could be considered an intense pleasure certainly.
This pleasure is far more intense than the pain of feelings of tension and anxiety that people express with countries such as North Korea with their nuclear arsenal.
However, if we recall 220,000 Japanese people experienced intense pain as they were the sacrifice needed to illustrate the devastating force of a nuclear weapon. This was required to showcase it as a deterrent.

Question 17

Nuclear deterrence - duration

Answer 17

They serve their function to reduce conflict then clearly this will produce a long lasting pleasure.
There has been relative peace in Europe since 1945 and no war has escalated beyond local conflict levels. This suggests deterrence has led to longer term peace.

Question 18

Nuclear deterrence - certainty

Answer 18

There is no certainty however in relation to holding nuclear weapons as a deterrent. We don’t know that it is the nuclear deterrent that has prevented wars escalating

Question 19

Nuclear deterrence - propinquity

Answer 19

When we actually create a nuclear weapon in a less obvious way the fact that it may serve as an effective deterrent in actual fact could increase the sum total of happiness both now and in the longer term

Question 20

Nuclear deterrence - fecundity

Answer 20

Holding nuclear weapons as an effective deterrent may not lead to further pleasures.
This is because of the natural tendency for competition between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons.

Question 21

Nuclear deterrence - purity

Answer 21

There is a mixture of pleasure and pain here.
Reducing conflict will lead to an increase in pleasure, however there may be anxiety

Question 22

Nuclear deterrence - extent

Answer 22

If nuclear weapons prevent war as they are a successful deterrent then clearly it has a far reaching impact and can bring pleasure to many.
However it is based on the threat of killing huge numbers and causing environmental damage on a massive scale. This must be taken into account.
Also, the number of countries with nuclear capability is small, which means that the vast majority of people in the world do not have the security of this deterrence. Is this fair?

Question 23

Nuclear deterrence and rule utilitarianism

Answer 23

Strong rule utilitarianism may not allow nuclear deterrence under any circumstance due to the potential for far reaching disaster, weak rule utilitarianism may allow certain reputable and responsible forces such as the UN to hold nuclear weapons as a deterrent.