USSR Topic 1 - Communist Government In The USSR

Question 1

When was the Bolshevik Party established and their aims upon establishment

Answer 1

Established in 1903

Wished to bring about change in Russia - main targeted was the Tsarist regime

Question 2

When did the Bolsheviks seize power

Answer 2

1917

The October Revolution

Question 3

What were Lenin’s aims for Russia during the revolution

Answer 3

Believed in having a highly centralised and disciplined party which would seize power on behalf of the proletariat
Power taken away from the bourgeoise and placed in the hands of the party - party to act as a dictatorship of the proletariat to promote socialism by government control over the economy in the interests of the workers

Question 4

What happened in the October Revolution, 1917

Answer 4

Bolsheviks seized power in October through a well-planned and well-executed uprising
Provisional government forced from power
Bolshevik was a small party at the time, but revolution portrayed by the Bolsheviks as a mass uprising of the workers
Propaganda presented the event as a heroic storming of the Winter Palace (when the gates were opened for the Bolsheviks)

Question 5

What kind of government did the Bolsheviks establish at the start

Answer 5

In 1917 - Bolsheviks claimed a desire to set up a democratic system which would rule on behalf of the people
By 1921 - became clear that they established a one-party state where all other political groups were banned
Given the opposition they faced, this seems like a good way to secure their power

Question 6

What difficulties did the Bolsheviks face during the creation of the USSR

Answer 6

• although party had grown in support since 1917, Bolsheviks were still a small group
• tried to represent view of proletariat and peasant, but not enough support to lead a revolution, therefore they seized power by force
• opposition from other groups: left-wing groups (socialist revolutionaries [SRs] and the Mensheviks), right winged groups (Tsarist supporters), liberal groups (middle class representation), Nationalist groups within the Russian empire (Ukrainians, Poles, Finns) - saw this as a chance to gain independence

Question 7

How did the Bolsheviks deal with other left-wing groups?

Answer 7

Lenin made it clear that power would not be shared (although they share similar views)

The Constituent Assembly in January 1918 were in favour of the SRs and Mensheviks (gained most of the seats - SRs had 410 seats with 21 million votes while Bolsheviks had 175 seats with 9 million votes)
Lenin then dissolved the Assembly after one meeting
Ensured that there was no real forum for opposition

Question 8

How did the Bolsheviks remove the other political parties

Answer 8

• removal of vote from ‘bourgeois classes’ - employers and priests stripped opposition parties of support
• Mensheviks and SRs had restrictions on their newspapers
• left-wing SRs who had a role in the Bolshevik government lost all influence when they walked out in protest of the Bolsheviks pulling out from WW1
• March 1918, Bolshevik party remained itself the Communist Party
• 1921, all other parties banned
• April 1921, Lenin declared “the place for Mensheviks and SRs is in prison” - waves of arrests for SRs and Mensheviks and also supporters

Question 9

When was the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Answer 9

1918

Question 10

What did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk do?

Answer 10

It put a peaceful end to the Russian involvement in WW1

Question 11

What did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk cost for Russia

Answer 11

• lost control over Baltic States (Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, Ukraine and parts of the Caucasus region)
• national humiliation for conservatives, especially those who served in the Tsar’s army
• motivated the Whites to fight against the Bolsheviks

Question 12

Why did Lenin sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk?

Answer 12

Took a lot of energy and resources from the government with little chance of military success

Lenin realised that to hold power in Russia, he had to pull out of the war to concentrate on his internal enemies

Question 13

Who were the ‘whites’

Answer 13

A range of political groups: those who wanted Tsarist Regime, Liberals, supporters of the Provisional government, military leaders, national minorities seeking independents and members of the Menshevik and SR parties

Question 14

When did the Bolsheviks win the civil war

Answer 14

The end of 1920 - Bolsheviks defeated the Whites and secured communist rule

Question 15

What was the Bolshevik’s military strategy in the civil war

Answer 15

Leon Trotsky - turned the Red Army into an effective fighting machine
Army was red guard units and old Tsarist armed forces, conscription introduced - number of soldiers went up to over 5 million by the end of the war
War communism - Bolshevik control of economy, in favour of the red guards
Large scale nationalisation of industry ensured supplies of Red Army
Food supplies requisitioned from the peasants
Resulted in supplies and food to keep the army going

Question 16

Increase in support for the Bolsheviks during the civil war

Answer 16

Workers: saw what the Bolsheviks stood for, best guarantors of their gains from the Revolution
Peasants: didn’t like food requisitioning, but Land Decree of 1917 guaranteed a distribution of land in their favour

Question 17

Key results of the civil war

Answer 17

Centralisation: Bolshevik state became highly centralised through demands of civil war - power now in the hands of the government (Sovnarkom) and party leadership (politburo) based in Moscow

Use of terror: civil war resulted in use of terror, used for development of the party later

Support: supporters went through a formative experience, reinforced militaristic values in the population

Question 18

When was the tenth party congress

Answer 18

March 1921

Question 19

What happened in the tenth party congress

Answer 19

Lenin put forward the ban on formation of factions within the party - ‘on party unity’ - an attempt to impose the view of the leadership of the party
Political tightening of the power of party leadership

Question 20

What was the Kronstadt Mutiny

Answer 20

1921
Sailors at the Kronstadt naval base formed a mutiny against the imposition of orders form the local soviet
Mutiny crushed by Red army - severe shock as sailors were previously strong supporters of the Bolsheviks

Question 21

What was the Tambov Rising

Answer 21

1920-21
Peasant uprising in the Tambov region of central Russia after the requisite of grain for use in the cities and army
Peasants formed a Green army and established control over a large area
Took over 50,000 Bolshevik troops to put down the revolt

Question 22

Apparatus of the government - proletariat organisations

Answer 22

Proletariat organisations like soviets, trade unions, factory committees were brought under Bolshevik rule then sidelined

Question 23

What was created to represent bodies in the Soviet Union

Answer 23

Stemmed from the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, headed by the Sovnarkom

Question 24

What was the Sovnarkom

Answer 24

The council of People’s Commissars, took the role of a cabinet of top government ministers
In theory - responsible for making key decisions and giving government orders
20 members elected by the Central Executive Committee

Question 25

What was the central executive committee

Answer 25

A larger group elected by the congress of soviets

Task was to oversee the work of the government and its administration

Question 26

What was the all-Russian congress of soviets

Answer 26

Supreme law-making body of the state
All laws issued by the Sovnarkom had to be approved by the congress
In theory, a highly representative body made up of members elected by local soviets, all those citizens engaged in ‘useful work’

Question 27

What was at the bottom of the government

Answer 27

Provincial and city soviets made up of representatives from local soviets
These bodies conducted the administration of government at local level

Question 28

What was the reality behind the government structure in the party

Answer 28

In principle it was democratic
In reality the Bolsheviks used their control over positions in the Sovnarkom to issue orders which were imposed on the country

Question 29

What was the politburo

Answer 29

Group of 7-9 leading members of the Bolshevik party, who were chosen by the Party’s central committee to make key decisions affecting policy
Met daily under Lenin, became more important than the Sovnarkom
Leading members: Lenin, Gregory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Leon Trotsky and Josef Stalin

Question 30

What was the central committee

Answer 30

Group of 30-40 members chosen by the Party Congress to represent its members
Supposed to make key decisions on policy, but, after 1919, power was increasingly delegated to the Politburo

Question 31

What was the party congress

Answer 31

A body made up of representatives of local party branches
Discussed the general programme of the party
After ‘on party unity’, which stifled debate, the role of the congress in influencing policy declined
Met yearly under Lenin from 1917, ended in 1926

Question 32

What was the local party branches

Answer 32

Below level of congress

Each branch headed by a party secretary - they can be very powerful

Question 33

What principle did the Bolsheviks claim their government was based on

Answer 33

Democratic centralism

Question 34

What is democratic centralism

Answer 34

Soviets were used as bodies that represented the workers at local level, their wishes could be expressed through a structure of representative organisations which would take their concerns up the higher levels of the party, then decisions would be implemented at local level

Question 35

The reality of the USSR’s democratic nature

Answer 35

Did not use democratic centralism
Ruled by decree, soviets were not involved in decision-making
Soviets were dominated by the Bolsheviks, unable to represent the workers
Local soviets were part of the local government but only followed orders from local PArty bosses
The representative bodies merely carried out orders given by the centre

Question 36

How was the power distributed within the party structure

Answer 36

Party leadership had rigid central control over the Party structure and its own member
Local branches of the Party were brought firmly under the control of the organisations at the centre of the party
During civil war, for decision-making, power transferred upwards to politburo - so there can be rapid responses to constantly changing circumstances
After civil war, the system became entrenched as those with power were reluctant to give up

Question 37

What were Lenin’s official positions within the government

Answer 37

Chair of the sonvarkom and one of the politburo members

Question 38

Lenin’s influence and power over the party

Answer 38

Influence - many Bolsheviks looked up to him, saw him as a source of inspiration
Power (1922-) - Lenin’s power to extent influence over Party and the government was limited by severe illness
After his third stroke in March 1923, he lost the capacity to speak

Question 39

What is the nomenklatura system

Answer 39

A system of appointing people to jobs from a list approved by the Party leadership
Evidence of commitment to the Party cause was necessary in order to remain on the list
Also encouraged corruption as favours were expected from those who were placed on the list and promoted

Question 40

Growth of party bureaucracy

Answer 40

Aided communist party control
By 1921, the Bolshevik party was much bigger than it was in 1917 - many joined the party to improve their career prospects but not necessarily committed communists
Party then developed nomenklatura system to combat the commitment of people

By 1924, membership reached about 1 million - entailed a large organisation peopled by administrators who were forming their own class with their own values and attitudes

Question 41

When was the Soviet Constitution established

Answer 41

1924

~ after the position of the Bolsheviks were strong enough to extend the control of the Party

Question 42

What was the USSR

Answer 42

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics - tightened the authority of the Communist Party based in Moscow
Party embodies in various republics, e.g. Ukraine
Made up of a range of different republics - Russians made up 90% of the land-area and 72% of the population
Nearly 3/4 of the communist party were Russian

Question 43

What was the OGPU

Answer 43

All-union state political administration

Activities brought under greater supervision by the state to ensure that it worked within the law

Question 44

What did the Cheka do (1918-1921)

Answer 44

Planned arrests, tortured prisoners, executed suspects without using official courts
Left-wing opponents arrested by August 1918 after an assassination attempt on Lenin
Carried out Red Terror
Between 1917 and 1923 - responsible for executions of up to 200,000 people
Secret police grew enormously, from 40,000 in December 1918 to 250,000 in 1921

Question 45

What methods did the secret police use to maintain terror

Answer 45

Intimidation and purges used to maintain discipline and order
Aimed at adventurers, drunkards and hooligans

Towards the end of Lenin’s life, he seemed to have an obsession over the use of terror

Question 46

Limitations in centralising the USSR

Answer 46

• the size of Russia, central control did not always extend to remote areas
• government often chaotic, opportunities for local mafias and black marketeers to defy party orders
• Kamenev and Zinoviev opposed Lenin’s decision to launch a revolution in 1917
• fierce debate within Party over Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918
• introduction of NEP led to formation of right and left wing factions within the party
• role of trade unions led to much debate within the Party

Question 47

What was Stalin’s role under Lenin’s leadership

Answer 47

General secretary - head of Party secretariat

Question 48

What powers did Stalin have as general secretary

Answer 48

• responsible for day-to-day running of the party
• co-ordinated work across all party departments, had access to a range of information
• gained access to over 26,000 personal files on party members, could use against rivals
• responsible for deciding Party meeting agendas, could restrict issues
• had the right to appoint people to Party positions, could promote his supporters to key positions, ended up with more officials becoming loyal to Stalin - could always outvote his opponents with his supporters

Question 49

Who were Stalin’s opponents in the Politburo for the struggle of power

Answer 49

• Leon Trotsky: seen as obvious successor
• Gregory Zinoviev: worked closely with Lenin, had a strong power base as Leningrad Party Secretary
• Lev Kamenev: Moscow Party Secretary
• Nikolai Bukharin: described by Lenin as ‘the golden boy’
• Mikhail Tomsky: leading figure in trade union movement
• Alexei Rykov: succeeded Lenin as Chair of the Sovnarkom

Question 50

Stalin’s removal of political rivals and his securing of power

Answer 50

• undermined Bukharin’s position by stressing Bukharin’s disagreements with Lenin
• Bukharin accounted of trotskiyism
• Bukharin arranged secret meeting with Zinoviev and Kamenev in 1928: enabled Stalin to accuse Bukharin of forming factions within the PArty
• supports of the Right in Moscow party branch removed
• undermined Bukharin’s support for retaining the NEP by highlighting the failures of the NEP
• during vote sfor policy decisions, Stalin relied on those who held higher power and supported him

Question 51

How did the communists use terror during the great purge

Answer 51

Party secretariat: collected information on party members to use against them

Secret police: carried out surveillances, arrests and executions, also ran the gulags

Question 52

When was the Chistka

Answer 52

1932-35

Question 53

What was the Chistka

Answer 53

New purge of Party membership - response to the difficulties experienced during the launching of the First Five-Year Plan and agricultural collectivisation
Designed to remove officials (those unhappy with Party leadership) to speed up the implementation of economic policy
By 1935, 22% of the Party were removed from their posts

Question 54

How were purges at a more local party level carried out to a large extent

Answer 54

Quotas were set by Stalin, detailing what percentage of each Party branch should be identified as enemies of the people
This ended with many Party branches trying to meet those quotas or even going over the quota in order to satisfy Stalin

Question 55

The increasing criticism of Stalin’s policy by 1932

Answer 55

• 1932, Ryutin (former party secretary) issued a document to the central committee that was highly critical of Stalin
• brutality that was used to enforce the policy of collectivisation in agriculture was a major cause of criticism - Peasant resistance had resulted in serious unrest
• Party officials often critical of the unrealistic targets set under the 5-Year Plans and that it couldn’t be achieved
• Seventeenth Party Congress of 1934, these criticisms gained strength, pressure was placed on Kirov

Question 56

When was Kirov murdered

Answer 56

1 December 1934

Question 57

Who murdered Kirov

Answer 57

Some suggested that his murder was carried out on Stalin’s orders

Official explanation: assassin was a member of an opposition group led by Zinoviev and Kamenev - both were then arrested and brought to trail in January 1935 and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment

Question 58

Influence of Kirov’s murder

Answer 58

The catalyst for the purging of large sections of the Communist Party

Question 59

What were the show trials

Answer 59

During 1935 and 1936
A wave of denounce actions and arrests of members in the Left Opposition who were still at large
Leading figures in the Party were accused of anti-Soviet activities

Question 60

When was the trial of the sixteen

Answer 60

August 1936

Question 61

What was the trial of the sixteen

Answer 61

Involved leaders of the left (including Zinoviev and Kamenev)
Dragged from prison and accused of working as agents of Trotsky to undermine the state
Under pressure from the NKVD, confessed to crimes they could not have carried out

Question 62

When was the trial of the seventeen

Answer 62

1937

Question 63

What was the trial of the seventeen

Answer 63

Purge of party officials such as Karl Radek and Georgy Pyatakov
Accused of working for Trotsky and foreign government to undermine Soviet economy through wrecking and Sabotage
Real rime was probably criticising the Five year plans

Question 64

When was the trial of the twenty-one

Answer 64

1938

Question 65

What was the trial of the twenty-one

Answer 65

Purge of the right - tomsky committed suicide before he could be brought to trial
Bukharin and Rykov accused of forming a “Trotskyite-Rightist Bloc” - both confessed
No hard evidence of these links with Trotsky, but Bukharin’s article which criticised Stalin’s economic policies showed that he was a threat to Stalin

Question 66

How were the show trials publicised

Answer 66

Staged to ensure party members were intimidated by the power of the state
Proceedings relayed to Soviet population via radio and film footage
Public didn’t know that the confessions were produced under pressure

Question 67

Purges in the red army

Answer 67

1937 and 1938

• 3/5 marshals purged
• 14/16 army commanders and 35,000 officers either shot or imprisoned
• navy lost every one of its admirals

Question 68

Purge of the secret police

Answer 68

Yezhov oversaw the most excessive phase of murders

- purging over 3000 of his own personnel in the first 6 months as head of the secret police

Question 69

How did the purges influence Stalin’s power within the Party

Answer 69

Safeguarded the power of Stalin and the position of the Communist Party

Question 70

How did the government and Party reflect Stalin’s growing control in the 30s

Answer 70

• politburo and institutions met less frequently as Stalin increased his control over them
• power became focused in subgroups set outside the Politburo, where Stalin could exercise firmer control
• attended important meetings, where he could imitate others as a they spoke

Question 71

What did the Soviet Constitution of 1936 do?

Answer 71

Tried to be democratic
Every citizen in the USSR was given the right to vote - even ‘bourgeois’ classes such as the kulaks and priests who weren’t allowed before
Constitution claimed that since the bourgeoise no longer existed, there was no reason to deny them the right to vote

Question 72

What was the reality of the Soviet Constitution of 1936

Answer 72

Constitution was a fraud - listed restrictions on the rights of citizens and it was clear that nothing could threaten the dominance of the Communist Party
Democracy imposed from above and limited by the leadership
Only candidates from the party were allowed to stand in elections
The government announced that political parties in the democratic sense were a product of conflicts between classes which generated capitalism

Question 73

What were the personal limits of Stalin’s power

Answer 73

Stalin would not have been able to decide and control every issue
It is impossible for him to keep on top of all the events in the large country
Required Stalin to prioritise and focus on issues that he was most concerned about

Question 74

Limits on Stalin’s power from within the leadership

Answer 74

Even after removal of opposition groups, there were limitations

• when Stalin wanted to execute Ryutin, Politburo disagreed
• Stalin’s ambitious targets for the 2nd 5-year-plan was considered too high by many both inside and outside of the Party - politburo felt that the plan would result in chaos sand opposition
• Kirov was growing in popularity as well, suggesting growing opposition to Stalin’s policies
• Politburo members expressed concern over Stalin’s increasing use of brutality

Question 75

Stalin’s power over the party during WW2 in 1941-1945

Answer 75

German invasion of USSR ended with co-ordinating the country’s administration to defend themselves
Use of terror reduced and some ex-Party officials and generals were released form the Gulags so they could help
Propaganda used to mobilise the masses for war effort - increased Stalin’s power as he was presented as a symbol of unity

Question 76

Effects of the German invasion of the USSR

Answer 76

Stalin was so shocked he suffered a breakdown
Retired fro several days - leaving communication in the front confused

However, he was still able to emerge form the WW2 as a hero to the Soviet people

Question 77

When was high Stalinism

Answer 77

1945-53

Question 78

Aftermath of WW2 and restoring power

Answer 78

Party leadership moved quickly to assert their authority after the slight relaxation of control during the war
Terror used to reinforce control as concessions like those given to the Orthodox Church were withdrawn

Question 79

Stalin’s 70th birthday

Answer 79

Celebrated in 1949
His cult of personality gave him the facade of enormous power
But his health has been in decline since the war and those around him were engaged in rivalry for power and influence
He increasingly relied on political scheming to divide potential rivals to his pew or and minimise their threat

Question 80

What was the Mingrelian Affair of 1951

Answer 80

A purge of the Party in Georgia that removed some of Beria’s allies - seemed to target those of Mingrelian nationality which Beria belonged to

Question 81

What did the Politburo become in 1952?

Answer 81

Remained the presidium
Enlarged from 10 to 36 members
Allowed Stalin to bring in relative newcomers like Brezhnev and Ignatev

Question 82

What was the ‘doctor’s plot’

Answer 82

A group of doctors were arrested in January of 1953, accused of trying to assassinate the leadership
May have been a campaign of terror against Soviet Jews, but more likely to be the elimination of Beria
Stalin died before the purge could take place