USA 1954-75 Basic Info

Question 1

Position of Black Americans

Answer 1

After the Civil War in 1865 black Americans were, in theory, given equal rights (14th Amendment). In reality, blacks still faced discrimination.

Question 2

Jim Crow laws

Answer 2

In the south ‘Jim Crow’ laws enforced segregation that covered all aspects of life.

Question 3

Plessey vs Ferguson case

Answer 3

1896 Homer Plessey challenged segregation on trains saying that it was against the 14th Amendment. The Supreme court ruled against him. The Plessey v Ferguson case of 1896 upheld Jim Crow Laws. It said that segregation was acceptable if the facilities provided were equal.

Question 4

Technically black Americans allowed to vote

Answer 4

However, by 1956, only 20% of them had registered to do so as they were intimidated and made to sit unreasonable tests to register

Question 5

National Association for the Advancement of Coloured people set up (NAACP)

Answer 5

1909, created legal defence fund in 1940 to campaign for integration and to overthrow Plessy. Focused on fighting for civil rights in the courts, and particularly on school segregation

Question 6

Congress of Racial Equality set up

Answer 6

1942, protested against segregation. Included black and white members, used non-violent direct action protests such as sit-ins, boycotts etc. Trained not to react even in the face of extreme intimidation/attack

Question 7

Key features of Brown vs Topeka case

Answer 7

1954 Oliver Brown took the City of Topeka in Kansas to court for forcing his daughter to attend a school a long way away, instead of being allowed to go to a nearby whites-only school. The NAACP supported the case and 4 others. In 1954 the Supreme Court declared that all segregated schools were illegal, because separate must mean unequal. Key turning point in Civil Rights although there was still much opposition in the south to integrating schools and many states refused to do so.

Question 8

Significance of events at Little Rock High School

Answer 8

1957 Elizabeth Eckford and eight other black students tried to enrol at Little Rock High School in Arkansas. They were stopped by the State Governor, Orval Faubus, who surrounded the school with the state National Guard.Eisenhower sent federal troops to escort and protect the students. After a month they were replaced by National Guards men under the orders of the President, they stayed at the school for a year

Question 9

When and what was the Montgomery Bus Boycott

Answer 9

In 1955 Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give her seat on a bus to a white man. Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Improvement Association organised a boycott of the buses which lasted for a year until the bus company gave in.

Question 10

Impact of the Montgomery bus boycott

Answer 10

In 1956 the Supreme Court said that segregation on buses was also illegal.
In 1957 Eisenhower introduced the first Civil Rights Act since 1875. It set up a commission to prosecute anybody who tried to deny American citizens their rights.
Rev. Martin Luther King became the leader of the Southern Christian Leadership Council. They urged black Americans to show their opposition to discrimination peacefully with non-violent direct action. They also worked hard to help people to register to vote.

Question 11

Opposition to civil rights movement KKK

Answer 11

organised demonstrations against Civil Rights and were involved in violent attacks

Question 12

Opposition to civil rights murders of George Lee, Lamar Smith and Emmet Till (14 year old boy)

Answer 12

got a lot of coverage across the country – exposed the racism, and injustice that existed in southern states and added impetus to the Civil Rights campaigns.

Question 13

Opposition to civil rights movement southern churches

Answer 13

claimed the bible said that integration was a sin (many KKK members were also members of these churches)

Question 14

Opposition to civil rights movement dixiecrats

Answer 14

southern democrats that formed a breakaway party after 1948 Civil Rights Bill

Question 15

Opposition to civil rights movements southern state governors

Answer 15

most state officials favoured segregation so opposed and moves towards Civil Rights

Question 16

Opposition to civil rights movement white citizens’ council set up in Mississippi

Answer 16

(aimed to preserve segregation and used violence/intimidation)

Question 17

Greensboro sit-in

Answer 17

King began to organise non-violent protests all over the South. Blacks and whites joined
the civil rights protest campaigns. Their main method was the sit-in. The first was at
Woolworth’s in Greensboro North Carolina, where eighty-five students demanded to be
served at a whites-only counter. When they were refused they organised a sit-in.
Altogether 70,000 took part in sit-ins across the south and 3,600 went to jail. When whites turned violent there was widespread television coverage and support for Civil Rights.

Question 18

Student protests organised by

Answer 18

Student Non-violent Co-ordinating Committee (or ‘Snick’)

Question 19

The freedom riders

Answer 19

The Freedom Riders were CORE campaigners rode buses to highlight that desegregation had not happened

Question 20

The freedom riders, ku klux klan violence and the Anniston bomb

Answer 20

Many southern state governors and much of the southern press spoke out against them. The KKK and WCC vowed to stop them
In 1961 the KKK firebombed a bus in Aniston, and buses were also attacked in Montgomery with little police protection, some riders arrested e.g. in Jackson, Mississipi
Freedom rides continued throughout 1961 - Federal government said that they would send federal troops if states did not desegregate bus facilities

Question 21

James Meredith case 1962,

Answer 21

James Meredith, a black student, was rejected from Mississippi university and the NAACP challenged his rejection. The Supreme Court ordered the university to admit him but officials still stopped him. In 1962 Kennedy sent the National Guard and federal troops soldiers into Mississippi to make sure that he could take his place at a university. But when rioting followed, 23,000 troops were needed to keep order.

Question 22

Peaceful protests and their impact and their impact Birmingham Alabama

Answer 22

1963: SNCC, SCLC & ACMHR (Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights) began Campaign ‘C’ (for confrontation). They targeted Birmingham, Alabama because it was completely segregated and it was nicknamed ‘Bombingham’ due to the regular bombing of black churches, homes and businesses.
It was also where the notoriously racist Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor was the chief of police and it was believed that he could be easily provoked into using violence against peaceful protesters. Arrests, water cannon, dogs and baton charges were used to disperse the marchers. Arrests reached 500 a day, but it was all shown on television and many were sickened by the violence.

Question 23

Peaceful protests and their impact March on Washington 1963

Answer 23

Immediately after events in Birmingham, 250,000 people (including 40,000 whites) took part Despite fears, the march was peaceful

Question 24

Significance of the march on Washington 1963

Answer 24

Size, TV broadcast around the world, King’s emotive speech, black and white crowd with famous people involved too (e.g. Bob Dylan)

Question 25

MLK's speech in Washington March 1963

Answer 25

“all men are created equal” “the table of brotherhood” “oasis of freedom and justice” “...not judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character”

Question 26

Freedom Summer

Answer 26

1964, 1000 volunteers went to Mississippi to work with local campaigners. Many white college students involved: Freedom Schools set up, helped many to pass voter registration tests.

Question 27

Significance of white opposition to freedom summer

Answer 27

Reaction of many white Mississippians, many blacks lost jobs, beatings and violence common, only 1600 of 17000 successfully registered to vote

Question 28

Mississippi murders

Answer 28

1964, three CORE workers (two white ,Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, and one black, James Chaney) were murdered by the KKK in June 1964, although their bodies were not discovered until August. Other bodies of black CORE workers were also discovered in the search. Another scandal that gained much media coverage

Question 29

Role of JFK

Answer 29

Appointed blacks to high level jobs, pressed for changes to laws, not afraid to intervene is south with executive orders eg James Meredith case.

Question 30

Role of LBJ

Answer 30

Appointed blacks to high level jobs, Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act, Escorted marchers from Selma to Montgomery

Question 31

JFK assassination and what both wanted

Answer 31

fore he could achieve what he wanted. Both Presidents also still needed the support of voters and members of Congress that opposed Civil Rights (eg Dixiecrats) so this limited what they could do. Also they both wanted to minimise federal government intervention so only tended to intervene when situations got out of hand (eg Birmingham)

Question 32

Selma, Alabama

Answer 32

1965, Only 1% of blacks in Selma Alabama were registered to vote – a protest march was planned on 7 March 1965 from Selma to Montgomery but the marchers were stopped from crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge by state troopers with tear gas/cattle prods/clubs. This became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ and prompted President Johnson to send federal troops to escort the marchers from Selma to Montgomery on 21-24 March where MLK gave a speech to 25,000 people.

Question 33

Civil rights act achievements

Answer 33

1964, Banned: Discrimination in voting, in public spaces and in jobs (Equal Opportunities Commission) Gave government power to: Enforce desegregation, remove funding from state projects that discriminated

Question 34

Civil rights act limitations

Answer 34

1964, Still difficult to enforce in many states Equal Opportunities Council had limited staff Many in Deep South found ways around desegregation

Question 35

Voting rights act achievements

Answer 35

1965, Set up: One voter registration requirement Federal government officials ran registration in some states

Question 36

Voting rights act limitations

Answer 36

1965, Although 79,593 had been registered by end of 1965 it was still a very slow process Even the federal officials faced opposition Many black Americans still frustrated

Question 37

Malcolm X

Answer 37

Born May 1925 as Malcolm Little. Early life: Father murdered, went to foster homes. Imprisoned for burglary. Joined the Nation of Islam, became interested in black nationalism, changed name to Malcom X. Early political career: NOI minister, then spokesman. NOI grew massively due to his campaigning Rejected non-violence, criticised MLK, thought that white Americans would always view blacks as inferior

Question 38

Changing political views of Malcolm X

Answer 38

Left NOI, changed views after visit to Mecca and became more willing to consider integration and accept white help. Met SNCC and CORE

Question 39

Malcolm X assassinated

Answer 39

1965 by NOI, 15,000 attended his funeral

Question 40

Reasons for the emergence of Black Power

Answer 40

The Black power movement encouraged black Americans to be proud of their heritage and rejected white help and the idea of integration. They were influenced by Malcolm X’s ideas and spoke about revolution. They were popular amongst the poor as they focused on local issues and tried to improve the lives of those living on the ghettoes

Question 41

Stokely Carmichael

Answer 41

Set up Lowndes County Freedom Organisation to represent Black Americans (slogan was a panther which became a symbol), May 1966 he became leader of SNCC and more people from Black Power became involved that radicalised SNCC campaigns

Question 42

The march against fear

Answer 42

James Meredith was shot on March through Mississippi

Question 43

MLK and Carmichael took over

Answer 43

– Carmichael gave speeches that showed new approach - “We been saying ‘freedom’ for six years,” he said. “What we are going to start saying now is ‘Black Power.'” CORE and SNCC became less welcoming of white supporters

Question 44

Mexico olympics 1968

Answer 44

Tommie Smith and John Carlos made Black Power salute on podium after 200m race. Seen across the world and had a massive impact. US papers condemned them, they received threats and were suspended from the team. But this simple act inspired many black Americans to join the Black Power Movement

Question 45

Who were the Black Panthers

Answer 45

Founded in 1966 by Huey P Newton and Bobby Seale Early attention: Marched to Sacramento with guns to protest anti-gun law. Beliefs: Black people needed black officials and police to protect them. Uniform: Black beret, trousers, leather jacket. Activity: e.g. street patrols, pressed local government officials to improve life for blacks, courses on black history. Successes: local activities in ghetto communities, health clinics and breakfast clubs. Negatives: some were involved in robberies and deliberately provoking police, e.g Newton charged with murder

Question 46

Major riots across US 1965-7

Answer 46

places like New York, LA (Watts Riot of 1965), Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit sparked off by poor treatment of black Americans. Significant clashes with police and damage to property.

Question 47

The major riots across US 1965-7 led to the Kerner report

Answer 47

1968, stated: riots were the result of poor conditions in the ghettos, white officials had failed to fix problems, the police needed to provide more protection in the ghettos, the media had sensationalised the riots

Question 48

King's campaign in the North

Answer 48

MLK and the SCLC went to Chicago in 1966 to campaign for fairer housing. Mayor Daley of Chicago agreed to talks but did not fulfil his promises about housing. MLK then organised a big demonstration in Washington called the Poor People’s Campaign

Question 49

MLK assasinatiom

Answer 49

4 April 1968: MLK was assassinated and widespread rioting took place. The Poor People’s Campaign went ahead without much success.

Question 50

Civil Rights Act

Answer 50

1968 included a section about fair housing and gave federal protection to Civil Rights workers

Question 51

Extent of progress in civil rights by 1975

Answer 51

Black protest split after 1969, with different groups focusing on different issues and using different tactics (some more radical, some still more peaceful). The Vietnam War became more of an issue so support for Civil Rights dropped Much progress had been made by 1975. 1970 Voting Rights Act banned literacy tests, in 1975 it was changed to include Hispanic, Native Americans and other races but the fight for equality in the US was far from won.

Question 52

Vietcong (VC)

Answer 52

Vietnamese Communists

Question 53

NVA

Answer 53

North Vietnamese Army

Question 54

ARVN

Answer 54

Army of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam)

Question 55

After the second world war Vietnam

Answer 55

was returned to the French, the former colonial power. The French became involved in a struggle with the communist Vietminh. In 1950 the French government appealed to the US for support.

Question 56

Battle of Dien Bien Phu

Answer 56

1954: French 15000 troops, Vietminh 50000 and anti-aircraft guns. Lasted 55 days before French surrender. French were defeated for many reasons (Vietminh had support from locals, French underestimated them)

Question 57

After French left 1954

Answer 57

Eisenhower continued to support the south, even though the new leader in the south, Ngo Dinh Diem, was corrupt and very unpopular. US politicians generally believed in the 'Domino Theory'. This was the belief that if on country fell to communism, its neighbours would follow. Eisenhower sent US military advisers to help the South Vietnamese army

Question 58

When JFK became president 1961

Answer 58

increased the number of military advisors from 700 to 15,000. Kennedy also ordered the building of ‘strategic hamlets’. These were heavily defended villages that South Vietnamese people were moved to. The idea was to get them away from the Viet Cong and protect by the ARVN (South Vietnam Army)

Question 59

Diems rule

Answer 59

By 1963 Diem’s rule in South Vietnam was so corrupt that he was facing continuous opposition. Several Buddhist monks burned themselves to death in protest. Diem also faced opposition from trade unions and a general strike was called. Kennedy threatened to withdraw military aid and then backed a plot by South Vietnamese generals to arrest Diem. He was murdered just three weeks before Kennedy’s own assassination.

Question 60

The increasing threat of the Vietcong

Answer 60

The Viet Cong, very rarely fought pitched battles. They used guerrilla tactics. Therefore, it was impossible to identify Viet Cong soldiers, because as they did not wear uniform. After a fight they would scatter and it would be impossible to find them.

Question 61

The gulf of tonkin incident

Answer 61

1964, and increased US involvement in Vietnam. In August 1964 the USA claimed that US warships had been attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin. This gave the US the excuse they needed and Congress gave Johnson the power to send US combat troops to Vietnam. Many believe that the Gulf of Tonkin incident was probably invented by the US government to justify US intervention in Vietnam. In March 1965 the first combat troops arrived

Question 62

VC tactics

Answer 62

The Viet Cong built thousands of miles of tunnels, with whole camps underground, so that they could hide. When the US forces found the tunnels they were often heavily booby-trapped. They were experts at building booby traps, using pits, sharpened sticks and mines. This meant that US soldiers could never relax. Even in the centre of Saigon it was possible for the US forces to be attacked. The Viet Cong were supplied from the north by the Ho Chi Minh trail, which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The Soviet Union and China sent up to 6,000 tonnes of supplies a day

Question 63

Methods used by USA 'search and destroy' missions were sent into the jungle

Answer 63

Their success depended on the body count. The number of dead Vietnamese brought back. It was usually impossible to tell which side they had been on.

Question 64

Methods used by USA Operation Rolling Thunder

Answer 64

from 1965 led to heavy bombing of North Vietnam that was far worse than anything that had been seen during the Second World War. The aim was to destroy military bases and equipment in North Vietnam and to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail

Question 65

Methods used by USA chemical weapons

Answer 65

The US Air Force began to use defoliants like ‘Agent Orange’. These stripped leaves from trees to deprive the VC from hiding places. Napalm was also used to burn villages to force Viet Cong out into the open. Both of these could be dropped from planes. ‘Agent Blue’ was used to destroy crops

Question 66

Impact of US tactics

Answer 66

did enormous damage to Vietnam and did not enable them to win the hearts and minds of the people which was so significant in a war of this nature

Question 67

Key features of Tet Offensive

Answer 67

1968, This was a massive attack by the North Vietnames upon South Vietnam, which began on 30 January 1968. All the major cities of South Vietnam, more than 100 altogether, were attacked, including Saigon. In Saigon the US embassy was seized by the North Vietnamese.

Question 68

Significance of Tet Offensive

Answer 68

1968, The North Vietnamese suffered very high casualties but many in the US were shocked by this attack particularly as they got into US embassy in Saigon. The South now seemed more vulnerable than ever and many in America saw it as a humiliating defeat – anti-war feeling grew and LBJ chose not to run for president after it

Question 69

Changes under Nixon

Answer 69

In 1969 Nixon began peace talks, and started the withdrawal of US forces, but at the same time stepped up attacks on North Vietnam. The Nixon Doctrone of 1969 said that the US would hour its commitments and provide aid and support but not troops. This led to the policy of Vietnamisation. This was an attempt to make sure the South Vietnamese could defend the country on their own with help from the US in providing training and equipment. Nixon hoped that they could withdraw with honour, without it looking like a defeat.

Question 70

Vitnamisation was

Answer 70

not successful as the South Vietnamese felt abandoned and this gave a boost to the North. In reality the south were not strong enough to defend themselves

Question 71

Attacks on Cambodia

Answer 71

1970 - Bombing continued under Nixon, including attacks on neighbouring countries to target the Ho Chi Minh Trail. Damage done to Ho Chi Minh Trail/many Communists killed but it did not stop the trail operating and many Communists retreated into safer placed

Question 72

Huge outcry in Us after attacks on Cambodia

Answer 72

Congress furious and called for less funding for war and faster withdrawal

Question 73

Laos

Answer 73

1971 - US provided air support for South Vietnamese invasion to defeat communist groups in Laos and destroy the Hi Chi Minh trail. Battle of Tchepone was bloody and eventually resulted in the ARVN retreating Invasion of Laos raised serious doubts about Vietnamisation – the trail and North Vietnamese bases in Laos remained secure

Question 74

Bombing of North Vietnam 1972

Answer 74

In response to the North’s Easter Offensive of 1972, Operation Linebacker was the heavy bombardment of North Vietnam. Linebacker severely damaged industry, supplies and communications in the North and China and the USSR urged the North to look for a peace settlement. The unrestricted bombing campaign was very controversial and there were more protests back in the US

Question 75

Reasons for the growth of opposition to the war

Answer 75

Tet Offensive, Cambodia Rising death toll, injuries, coast and length of the war, black American opposition, Role of individuals like Muhammed Ali,

Question 76

What was the draft

Answer 76

compulsory service in the military. Many opposed it because it was sending young men who were not well trained to war. It was also felt that mainly poor families were least able to avoid it. A ‘Lottery’ system was introduced in 1969 but this didn’t make it any more popular. In total 650,000 soldiers were draftees with1 million draftees were in reserve

Question 77

How people avoided the draft

Answer 77

College students could delay it until graduation, Family’s only son was exempt, some workers exempt, studying or working abroad

Question 78

Impact of media on Vietnam

Answer 78

Reporters were allowed to travel with the troops into the war zone and were not censored. Became known as ‘The living room war’ as many people saw footage of the war on their TV screens. This bought the horror of the conflict closer to home

Question 79

Student movement (Vietnam)

Answer 79

In the 1960s, a significant amount of students became part of the counter- culture movement – refused to live by the cultural rules of their society.

Question 80

One of the most significant student groups was SDS (Students for a Democratic Society) (Vietnam)

Answer 80

By 1965, it had 3,000 members over 80 College campuses. SDS angered many people because they opposed the war and openly supported the North Vietnamese.

Question 81

Public reaction to the My Lai Massacre

Answer 81

1968. Charlie Company, led by Lieutenant Calley, they killed all the people and animals in My Lai village. They claimed that they had been ordered to do so. After a cover up and then an investigation the truth emerged in 1970. The Public were not sure what to believe at first but after photos shown on CBS news, there was a huge public outcry. Lt Calley’s trial – convicted of killing 22 civilians in 1971, the only one brought to trial.

Question 82

Kent State University shootings

Answer 82

1970. After Nixon’s announcement of the invasion of Cambodia, peaceful protests began. Several demonstrations and an Officer Training building on Campus burned down. Mayor declared state of emergency. Officials banned a demonstration, but this was ignored. After National Guards had bricks etc. thrown at them, they opened fire, killing 4 students (2 students also killed at Jackson State Uni 2 weeks later)

Question 83

Reasons for support of the war

Answer 83

Cold War - fear of communism – Domino Theory, Moral/religious reasons, Freedom (as above), Patriotism - superiority of capitalism & democracy

Question 84

The Hard Hat Riot

Answer 84

1970: Construction workers that clashed with anti-war protestors in New York. Peter J Brennan then led a pro-war rally on 20 May of 60,000 people. They were seen to represent general working-class support for the war

Question 85

The silent majority (Vietnamj

Answer 85

Nixon appealed to support for the silent majority in 1969 – those that supported his policies but didn’t campaign for or against the war. His speech was remarkably successful and showed that a lot of people supported his policy.

Question 86

Reasons for, and features of the peace negotiations 1972-3

Answer 86

Difficult for sides to agree over whether/how to unite Vietnam, what to do with the South, how to manage troop withdrawals, Secret Peace talks made it difficult for South to agree to anything, 1972 Easter Offensive by North Vietnam shocked the US. South Vietnamese leader, Thieu, refused to sign agreement in October 1972 as he felt he had no say in the agreement. The North felt that the US were using this as an excuse, showed lack of trust on all sides

Question 87

Significance of Paris Peace agreement

Answer 87

1973: US troops, bases to be withdrawn in 60 days, Ceasefire to begin, All countries accept Vietnam as a single country, US to help reconstruction of north and south.

Question 88

Impact of the Paris agreement

Answer 88

The USA – enabled them to remove soldiers, Congress cut financial support to South leaving the ARVN badly supplied Both the North and South saw this ‘peace’ as little more than a ‘brief ceasefire’.

Question 89

South Vietnam after peace agreement

Answer 89

economy collapsed, Thieu did not make his government any more democratic nor did he attempt to negotiate with the communists so VC gained control in villages

Question 90

North Vietnam after agreements

Answer 90

became impatient, attacked south in December 1974. Lack of US support meant that the South was defeated quickly by April 1975.

Question 91

Economic and human costs of the war for USA

Answer 91

Cost an estimated $167bn, US had lost face abroad and had failed to keep Vietnam free from Communism, 58,220 dead, Poor treatment of returning soldiers – many treated with hostility, Suicide rate for veterans much higher than other men of a similar age, More divided society was shown by protest movements

Question 92

The strengths of North Vietnam

Answer 92

They understood the landscape, climate and language; North Vietnamese fully committed to the cause; VC were popular with the South Vietnamese villagers: North had support from other countries – USSR, China and Laos and Cambodia allowed the Ho Chi Minh Trail to operate; Guerrilla tactics used by VC were very effective

Question 93

The weaknesses of US armed forces

Answer 93

Completely misunderstood the Vietnamese villagers; did not understand the landscape, climate and language; Mistakes – area bombing, use of defoliants, focusing on the bodycount rather than gaining control of areas; did not win the hearts and minds of the people; growing public opposition at him made it almost impossible for the US government to continue the war; the draft meant that soldiers were normally young and inexperienced; they were supporting a very unpopular South Vietnamese government.