USA 1776-83

Question 1

Military advantages for both sides

Answer 1

British:
- Supplemented their army of 50,000 with 18,000 German soldiers
- The American army fluctuated between 20,000 and 5000 soldiers
- Britain had the most powerful Navy in world (300 ships)
- Americans lacked effective war time government to organise and pay soldiers
- Militias less impressive at fighting + typically went home before the end if their already short terms
- British had population of 8 million compared to Americas 2.5
- War disrupted trade in America and British blockades disrupted supplies to soldiers- shortage of firearms, munitions and clothing

Americans:
- Lots of the experienced British soldiers died in the 7 years war
- America employed around 2000 privateers to disrupt British shipping
- They had no obvious base for the British to focus on
- Britain reluctant to fight a war of destruction
- British royal navy hadnt been at full capacity since 1763 and Lord North reluctant to re-arm for fear of provoking French

Question 2

Geography advantage on both sides

Answer 2

Britain:
- None
America
- Britain 3000 miles away + made communication harder
- America had no obvious base for Britain to focus on

Question 3

Morale and leadership

Answer 3

Britain:
- 500,000 Americans stayed loyal and 3/5 of population were either loyalist or neutral
- George Washington struggled to organise troops and prevent deserting
- morale of colonies diminshed by disruptions in supply due to British blockades and disruptions to trade, caused shortages

Americans:
- Lord North was not particularly aspirational
- They feared alienating the colonials so didn’t go hard on them
- Risk of France and Spain joining war to spite Britain

Question 4

How does Washington decide to fight and why?

Answer 4

• face on as opposed to guerilla
• partly because of his pride and desire to show strength
• alsp because he believed withdrawing and surrendering cities like New York and Philadelphia would weaken support for this cause
• support for the revolution balanced delicately so he has a point

Question 5

Loyalists

Answer 5

• 2/5 active rebels, 2/5 neutral, 1/5 loyalists
• majority of americans dont support war
• unable to organise themselves as they came from various backgrounds and didnt have an exact cause. rebels had a common cause, whereas loyalists only knew they were against it

Question 6

General William howe background + context

Answer 6

• directs British troops in America in 1776
• fought with success in 7 years war
• He was fond of Americans and sympathised with them
• feared that a devastating British victory would permanently alienate colonists making it hard to rule them.
• by August 1776 he commanded 32,000 men
• had he fought with more ruthlessness and determination its likely British would have won

Question 7

howe’s impact

Answer 7

Howe’s impact
- After March 1776, he plans assault on New York city, begins moving into Staten island in July
- Howe’s brother supported a policy of reconciliation, wanted to negotiate a settlement for lasting peace

• 27th August 1776 the British finally attack Long Island
• Washington should have retreated, only have 20,000 men and given Britain’s command of the sea. But Congress insisted he fight and he thought Manhattan was key to the effort
• The Americans suffered 2000 casualties, 6 times the British losses and were forced to retreat by 29th August 1776
• Rather than continue momentum, Howe sought to negotiate peace but failed.
• November 16th the British captured Fort Washington taking 3000 prisoners and immense amounts of supplies- this was shattering blow for Washington
• By December, Washington is forced to retreat into Pennsylvania across the Delaware River, at which point many men deserted and the army fell to 3000 men.
• Howe then says all willing to make oath of alliance to king would be granted pardon, thousands applied.
• In December they seize Newport (Rhode Island), another blow to Washington and morale.

Question 8

Trenton and Princeton events and effect

Answer 8

• instead of marching on Philadelphia, Howe waits, throwing away opportunity to destroy morale
• this gives time Washington time to regroup
• reinforced with militia and knowing he needed a victory, Washington re-crosses the Delaware with 2400 men on Dec 25th. Attacks British at Trenton on December 26th, taking 1000 prisoners. Only 4 Americans wounded
• He follows up with similar attack in Princeton on 3 January 1777
• Howe forced to relinquish gains in New Jersey, more importantly American cause gained support and life.
• proves Washington as competent military leader
• their first proper win

Question 9

1777 British plans

Answer 9

British plans 1777

• Britain has great hopes of winning, New York secure and so was Canada
• In 1777, there’s two large Armys in North America, one in New York with Howe, and another in Canada with John Burgoyne.
• Burgoyne aimed to isolate New England, Howe instructed to cooperate with him, he does NOT! His main concern was to capture Philadelphia. This causes split campaigns rather than joint effort

Question 10

What happens in Philadelphia and why

Answer 10

Philadelphia is where the congress is based

Howe believes that if he can capture Philadelphia, revolutionary war will end

• Howe targeted Philadelphia due to its symbolic importance as a major city and the nominal base for the continental congress
• He defeats Washington on September 11th, Americans lose 1200 men and the British half that. ONCE AGAIN Howe misses opportunity to destroy them.
• Howe then successfully captured Philadelphia on September 26th 1777, however this did little to shift the tide of the war. Philadelphia had no strategic value.
• The congress was simply moved to the town of Lancaster and Howe spent the rest of the winter failing to win a decisive victory but pushing Washington out to Valley Forge after a counter attack on October 4th.

Question 11

Weaknesses of Burgoyne’s campaign

Answer 11

• Too much baggage, they found movement difficult as militia blocked roads and destroyed bridges
• It took Burgoyne three weeks to cover the 37km to Fort Edward
• The presence of the army made many neutrally inclined Americans turn to rebels.
• Burgoyne’s native American allies clashed with colonists, taking many hostage and deserting when forced to give them up
• 600 troops were killed or captured by New Hampshire militia from 15-16 August
• Reinforcements faced difficulty reaching Burgoyne, being forced to flee into Canada

Question 12

Events of Saratoga, why do colonists succeed?

Answer 12

• General Horatio Gates (aided by Benedict Arnold) prepared defensive positions north of Albany. American successes in August encouraged New England militiamen to join Gates. By mid-September, he had 7000 men (as did Burgoyne)
• The two clash in September 1777 and Burgoyne is in perilous position, short of supplies. Burgoyne believed he would receive reinforcements from general Clinton however this did not happen
• they end up surrounded and retreated to Saratoga
• Begin negotiating with Gates on 14th October however congress refuse to accept terms and Burgoyne’s troops remain prisoners of war.

Question 13

Consequences of Saratoga

Answer 13

• first time the rebels defeated the British in a major campaign→ morale boost
• howe offers his resignation
• Clinton forced to abandon the highlands to support Burgoyne
• In December, lord north explores contacting Benjamin franklin, in order to end the conflict
• February 1778 they renounce the Coercive acts and their right to tax them
• Peace commission set up to negotiate an end to the war however refusal to grant independence mean negotiations fall through
• Brings France into the war, they see its possible to win
• Acted as a turning point and was different to Trenton + Princeton: Saratoga is the first big punch, first big victory and against an important general (Burgoyne), thousands of troops out of the fight (prisoners)

BRINGS THE FRENCH INTO THE WAR

• The British had been winning till now (New York, Philadelphia)

Question 14

Why do France join the war?

Answer 14

Saratoga: They see that the colonies have a real chance at winning the war

Seven Years War: They want revenge for the loss

Religion: France has religious conflict with Britain (Protestant vs Catholic→ though the colonists were also strongly protestant)

Benjamin Franklin: Congress send him to France to connect with intellectuals who were questioning enlightenment. Head of diplomatic mission to Paris in 1776

Lord North: North starts to make concessions, so Franklin plays on French fears of reconciliation and the war ending.

Counter points:

• They don’t get involved straightaway because they are quite poor
• Louis 14th worried republican ideas will spread to his country

Question 15

alliance formed that add France and Spain

Answer 15

Alliance:

6 February 1778 they sign two treaties. One meant France would eventually go to war with Britain and the Americans would join them. (They do so in June 1778)

April 1779, Spain enter the war as an ally of France not America. Wanted to regain possessions lost to Britain eg Gibraltar

Question 16

The League of Armed Neutrality + significance

Answer 16

• 1780 Russia, Sweden and Denmark formed the league. Portugal also joins later. This was to bolster USA position. Shows how Europe wanted to limit Britain’s growing power

Question 17

Consequences of European intervention

Answer 17

At the onset of 1778, Britain is now very wary. Need to protect themselves, North America, and their other colonies.

France’s population was 25 Million, TWICE that of Britain

Britain is now really concerned about their control of west indies→ SUGAR hugely valuable.

• French intervention produced a national war effort in Britain, they’ve gone from fighting their own→ To fighting a foreign enemy. Britain GAINS morale. By 1782, they had 150,000 troops and the Navy had 100,000.
• However this was spread thin→ only 29% of British army were in north America by mid 1780. They are moving them to other colonies.
• France is unable to overwhelm the British, they are still very strong.
• They were also more concerned with their own problems with Britain (wanted to gain control of their sugar islands) rather than the American cause.
• They only ever sent 10,000 troops when their army was 150,000.
• they also provide money and resources through a Shell company

Question 18

Why did the war reach stalemate in 1778? What happens at Valley Forge + significance

Answer 18

Winter 1777-78 Valley Forge

Winter 1777 to 1778

• Washington’s army make their camp here over winter
• weather meant that fighting died down
• people’s enlistments were running out
• They had just lost in battle of Brandywine and Germantown in 1777 to Howe
• British take Philadelphia 1777
• 1/4 soldiers unfit for duty
• build a population/community
• Washington needs to retrain the army
• lots of desertion
• They seek food from local farmers with non-valuable currency, many of whom refuse and instead sell to the British army who provide official money.
• Almost 2,000 soldiers die from typhoid and other illness during the encampment (out of an army of 12,000).
• Washington issues strict orders to improve sanitation, he also orders mass immunisation against small pox→ its success fortifies the army for the rest of the war
• Appoints Nathaniel green as the new quarter master
• Von Steuben→ He is a mercenary from Germany. His knowledge of European military tactics impress Washington who appoints him. He publishes his drills in a manual known as the ‘Blue Book’.
• Indigenous people scout, teach foraging and disrupt British supply lines. Washington acknowledge the help of the Oneidas.
• African Americans also join the effort
• 11 different states offer soldiers, so retraining is needed as they all have differing military backgrounds.

Over the months in Valley Forge, the army has trained into a proper military force. They have newfound morale. Its such a horrible experience, a proper hellscape, however coming out of it meant endurance.

Question 19

1778-9 what are Clinton’s problems?

Answer 19

In February General Howe was replaced by General Henry Clinton

• He was stripped of 5000 troops as Britain’s main military efforts were to be directed towards French possessions in the Caribbean.
• He was told to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate his efforts in New York
• Sets off for New York in mid June 1778 with 10,000 soldiers
• An American attack on the 28th June failed (Battle of Monmouth). Washington blames this on his second in command General Charles Lee
• Lee ends up suspended and Clinton’s army reach New York fine.
• The 4000 French troops failed to capture Newport (July to August 1778). They instead sailed to the Caribbean to capture British islands

Question 20

What was it looking like 79? Could the British still win despite Clinton’s difficulties??

Answer 20

Britain’s position was by no means hopeless. Held a number of coastal enclaves and had opportunities in the South. It was conceivable that American war weariness would lead to an ESCALATION in LOYALIST SUPPORT.

Question 21

American problems 1779-81

Answer 21

• In 1779 Washington faced difficulties which stopped him from taking the offensive.
• This was LACK OF TROOPS. They deserted or refused to re-enlist
• Popular enthusiasm for war had strongly diminished
• His encampment (Morristown) in the winter 1779-80 was worse than Valley Forge. Death and desertion reduced army to 8000 men, 1/3 were unfit to serve
• 1780 Benedict Arnold, plotted to turn over the fortress of West point to Britain
• This went wrong as Clinton’s emissary was captured with evidence of the plot.
• Symbolised crumbling of American plight and support

Question 22

significance of the war in the west

Answer 22

The War in the West

War saw a racial conflict with the natives. most of the 100,000 of them chose to fight with the British.

Saw it as an opportunity to drive back the American settlers. However they thought it was mixed blessing because they were unreliable and divided, their attacks also antagonised loyalists and neutrals.

Question 23

Why do Britain mount campaign in South?

Answer 23

Britain decide to fight for the South in 1778, there was large amount of loyalists. Believed war weariness would lead to increased loyalist support

Question 24

Southern Campaign- Georgia

Answer 24

• Late 1778, Clinton sends 3000 British force to Georgia, they capture Savannah and 300 prisoners
• Early 1779, Augusta falls, Campbell (colonel) prevents troops from mistreating locals: many Georgians join loyalist militia
• British position in Georgia is delicate, divided population of loyalists and patriots. British are also outnumbered by rebels
• 1779 Autumn, British Admiral D’Estaing led Franco-American attack on Savannah. 1,500 French-American casualties causing them to retreat

Significance:
- marks start of southern strategy to make use of loyalist presence in south

• creates division among locals, shows complex loyalties of colonies
• Morale boosts for british
• highlights difficulties in alliance with france and mounting effective campaigns
• foundation for further southern campaigns

Question 25

Southern Campaign- The Carolinas + significance

Answer 25

• Feb 1780, British General Charles Cornwallis with 7000 men takes Charleston. Rebel general Lincoln surrenders in May. British capture 5,000 American prisoners and supplies - major loss for USA
• British forces under General Tarleton defeat Virginian rebels in May. Tarleton uses brutal tactics, killing many despite surrendering. Known as Tarleton’s Quarter.

Significance

• Campaign revealed that loyalist support was less than expected
• campaign intensified the war’s brutality, especially Tarleton’s Quarter. Fuelled determination to fight the British
• major losses for Americans at Charleston and Camden, devastating. lead to capture of thousands of troops. Defeat at Camden destroyed Horatio Gates reputation
• TURNING POINT for patriot morale. The brutal tactics used led to resilience and resurgence of southern resistance. local militias rallied under Nathaniel green- sets stage for later victories!
• stretched British forces thin and exhausted them. Cornwallis push into Virginia (due to frustration with Carolinas) would lead directly to defeat at battle of Yorktown

Question 26

Nathanael Greene

Answer 26

• late 1780 Greene takes command of continental army in south
• divided his forces for hit and run tactics one under Daniel Morgan
• Morgan leads 700 men to south carolina to probe british defences
• Jan 1781 Morgan defeats Tarleton
• Battle March 1781 Cornwallis wins but 500 (1/4) of his force dies.

Greene weakens British hold over south. exhausts their forces leading to their retreat and defeat at yorktown

Question 27

Battle of Yorktown and significance

Answer 27

• April 1781 Cornwallis heads to Virginia rather than dealing with Greene in South Carolina. Get there 20th May
• American and French forces, led by Washington and French General Rochambeau, coordinated to trap Cornwallis on the peninsula.
• The allied forces started a siege on September 28, 1781, surrounding Yorktown and cutting off British supply lines.
• Cornwallis, unable to hold out or receive aid, surrendered on October 19, 1781, with over 8,000 British troops, effectively ending major combat in the war.
• 8000 of Cornwallis’ troops captured. Still 30,000 British troops left in North America
• Cornwallis was a major general and now out of the war
• People in London start to argue that they cant win a war of reconciliation
• French in the Caribbean also distracting the British
• so its a turning point because the sentiment at home changed even with british public

Question 28

Peace making

Answer 28

April 1782, Rockingham (had replaced Lord North) ordered evacuation of New York and other British holds.

• Rockingham more open to ending the war
• Upon Rockingham’s death Shelburne becomes PM
• American reps enter into informal talks in Paris April 1782 months before official peace negotiations in September.
• Shelburne prepared to be generous to Americans, hoping to separate them and France
• John and Jay Adams suspicious of British motives but also French minister, suspect he wanted to support Spanish claims of Trans-Appalachian
• Without telling Franklin or the French, they open negotiations with Britain.
• The treaty of Paris signed on 3 September 1783:

Question 29

The treaty of Paris + significance

Answer 29

signed on 3 September 1783:

• Britain recognised American independence
• Americans granted liberty to fish the Newfoundland banks and dry fish in the Nova scotia area
• USA agree British merchants wont have trouble recovering pre war debts from Americans and congress should recommend to the states the restoration of loyalist property
• Britain cedes Florida to Spain
• They get control of the land into the West (Trans Appalachian)
• For the USA this was a major triumph, especially gaining the Mississippi boundary. Shelburne essentially gave up control of the Trans-Appalachian area in hope for an Anglo-American commercial alliance and political reunion.