Empire 1914-47 Flashcards
1
Q
what two things did empire contribute to war effort (ww1)
A
- 1.4 million men
- raw materials and food
2
Q
what was a symbol of colonial relationship during ww1 + its limitation?
A
The imperial war cabinet created in 1917, representatives from dominions and India. Symbolised union of empire in war
- only met twice + british dominated meetings
3
Q
white dominions during ww1 (attitudes + actions)
A
- mostly keen to help
- conscription introduced in both New Zealand + Canada by 1917
- 1915, Australians and New Zealanders applauded for bravery in Gallipoli campaign
- Canada supplied 1/3 of munitions used by British army from 1917-18. Also supplied wheat
- SA Defence Force formed by General Smuts, who had previously fought British in Boer war. Force defends German south west africa during war after invasion.
4
Q
Were all white dominions involved in ww1? + long term impacts/takeaways
A
- Was not popular everywhere: French Canadians saw it as pro-British affair. March 1918 there were protests against conscription
- Australians also rejected conscription twice (1916+17)
overall the war boosted self-confidence however in long term this would just promote desire for independence
5
Q
India involvement in ww1 + long term impacts
A
- A third of troops in France 1914 were Indians
- 1917, Indian government contributed £100 Million to war effort
- Acknowledgement of their help + in response to growing Indian support for independence (INC), Edwin Montagu (sec of state) promised more responsible self-government for India
6
Q
Africa involvement in ww1
A
- 1.2 Million Egyptians recruited to defend middle east
- 100,000 Egyptians fought in Europe
- Black people not recruited to fight but worked in France as labourers
- This led to: first Pan African Congress held in France in 1919 + long term formative for development of independence movements
7
Q
aftermath of ww1?
A
- 1919 treaty of versailles takes germany’s colonies + turn into League of Nations mandates
- Bc of treaties, additional 1.8 million square miles added to Empire (and 13 million subjects).
- Dominions also gained eg Union of SA gains South West Africa
8
Q
Why did Britain want the palestinian mandate?
A
Keen to acquire for economic and strategic reasons:
Middle east crucial to British as it incorporated the main land routes to India + Asia and bc of its proximity to the Suez Canal. Mesopotamia also valued for oil.
9
Q
impact of ww1 on palestine + significance
A
by 1918, palestine was unstable from heavy fighting between brits and turks.
Turks had enforced conscription on the Arabs increasing desire for independence
Lawrence of Arabia promoted rebellion by Arab tribes against Turkish rule during war -> made them believe if they FIGHT WITH THE BRITISH, they will gain FREEDOM from the Turks
10
Q
What was the balfour declaration + significance
A
1917, foreign sec arthur balfour sends letter that was released to the press:
- expressed sympathies with Zionists and promised British support for a homeland for Jews in Palestine. Did so on understanding that Arab population would continue living as they had done + maintain their rights
it was partly genuine sympathy but also attempt to gain support of american public for british control of palestine (as they were anti-imperialist)
11
Q
what did the balfour declaration and british pursuit of influence over palestine cause?
A
British-sponsored zionist commission arrives in 1918
Muslim-Christian association is formed in response
- violent clashes between jews and arabs between 1918 and 1920 as a result
- total jewish population reached 60,000 (9% of population)
12
Q
indigenous groups - palestine (events + significance)
A
tensions in palestine escalated in 1930s as Jews fleeing nazism entered
Inter racial violence rose after formation of jewish ‘Haganah’, militia to protect themselves
stern gang formed under jewish nationalists: waged open war on both british and arabs
1929 wailing wall arab riots
By 1945 there was open conflict between the groups that British couldn’t control
13
Q
British withdrawal from palestine
- problems faced
A
Two problems:
- Truman and america favoured jewish settlement in palestine due to holocaust. Britain needs US economic aid, but want to keep Arab allies in Middle east for their oil
- outbreaks of jewish terrorism against british, they face prospect of policing country in turmoil when resources were alr stretched thin
they try to negotiate solution but eventually turn to the UN, who favoured partition. In september 1947 british decide to withdraw and hand over control to UN
14
Q
administration of palestine mandate
A
- 1920: set up a civil govt under Herbert Samuel however it was difficult to reconcile the two communities. Authorities in london were pro jewish whereas british authorities in palestine were sympathetic to arabs
- samuel tried to give both communities representation in govt but this was overshadowed by ethnic tensions
- With the Jewish National Fund, they begin buying up land and evicting Arabs from farms
- enquiry 1929 called for jewish land acquisition to be curbed but pro jewish feeling in USA/UK shut this down
- 1933 immigration rises from nazi persecution
- 1936- british send 20,000 troops to deal with arab rioting
- 1937 peel report recommends partition. Arabs oppose.
- 1937 british adopted policy of repression to deal with violence (over 100 arabs hanged)
- 1939- war imminent and fears of italian attack on egypt, britain call for palestinian state in which jews enjoy national homeland
- 1939- jewish immigration restricted to 15,000 per year for five years.
15
Q
by what point did the empire reach its peak
A
about 1920
16
Q
what was ireland’s history with Empire through 19 ce
A
Joined UK in 1801 and had experienced Home Rule movement through 19th ce
gladstone had failed regarding Irish independence and Asquith only came close (outbreak of war prevented his Home rule Bill)
17
Q
Ireland’s independence
A
Irish Volunteers prepare armed rising during WW1:
- Dublin Easter rising April 1916 + period of guerrilla warfare that ended in 1921 with the Anglo-Irish Treaty
Catholic Irish Free state set up and given dominionship after treaty signed
Northern protestant counties contest, and remain under British sovereignty.
Irish free state takes name Eire + achieved full independence in 1937 under Statute of Westminster
18
Q
losses in aftermath of ww1
A
- Ireland
- 1922 Egypt gains independence after Milner report 1921 (recommended independence due to growing nationalist movement). British troops remained stationed in Egypt until Anglo-Egyptian Treaty 1936
- Also lose Mesopotamia (Iraq) in 1932. Had ruled Mesopotamia as mandated territory after 1920 (providing protection for monarch rulers). However, it was not stable + big nationalist movements. Kingdom of Iraq was granted independence by its ruler (King Faisal) but new govt remained close with Britain. britain maintained its economic + military influence over oil industry by keeping its air bases
19
Q
why was egypt granted independence
A
egypt independence in 1922
- after ww1, nationalist movement picked up to the point where they were forced to grant its independence
weeks of strikes etc
- troops remained stationed to protect british route to india
20
Q
what did the interwar years look like?
A
- severe economic difficulty due to the Great Depression of 1930s (harder to defend empire)
- new aggressive regimes emerge in 1930s. Imperial Japan was danger in asia, Fascist Italy was danger to Africa (Abyssinia attempt in 1935 threatened Egypt interests). Nazi Germany obv in Europe
- rise of nationalist independence movements esp in India (need for military resources)
21
Q
what do britain do to face problems of interwar years + limitations
A
- take geopolitical view. Had to prioritise and balance costs + military demands of defending empire vs needs in europe/home
- they adopt Appeasement in some places in order to focus on other parts of empire. They spent £25 million in inter war years on building up Singaporean naval base hoping to deter japanese aggression
- it was proved a failure when the japanese attacked Singapore in 1942 while Britain was at war and too thinly stretched to defend singapore
22
Q
White dominions involvement in ww2 + significance
A
Canada:
- Major industrial + military contribution (produced warships, aircrafts). Industrial contribution worth £800 million annually.
- declared war independently
AUS:
- Battle of the Coral Sea (1942), Australians halted Japanese advance.
SA:
- provided steel
Significance:
Demonstrated loyalty but also growing assertion of independence (e.g., Canada declaring war separately).
War effort helped solidify national identities.
Economic and political strains accelerated decolonisation pressures post-war (especially for South Africa and Australia).
23
Q
African involvement in ww2 + significance
A
- 52,000 nigerians forced to work in mines
significance:
African soldiers were often paid less than white troops.
British commanders doubted their fighting ability and used them in support roles.
24
Q
Asia involvement in ww2 + significance
A
- Over 2.5 million Indians served
- Ceylon supplied over 50% of rubber used by Britain and Allies
- Canada ‘billion dollar gift’ granted to support Britain (1942)
25
economic impact of ww2 on britain + significance
- German U boat attacks on British sea traffic- overall Britain lost 54% of merchant fleet strength at beginning of the war
- loss of major colonies in SE Asia after 1942 to Japanese cut off supplies of raw materials like rubber from malaya.
- Borrowed from US in form of lend-lease causing massive war debts. Given £900 million loan when lend-lease ends 1945.
- Debt: In 1918, as percent of GDP was 200%. In 1945 its at 250%
consequences/ significance:
cost of empire being threatened by Japanese rise in east + emergent nationalism in India etc threatened to exceed potential benefits.
- they start placing importance on economic development, abandoned imperial control in countries where costs>benefits eg India, Burma and Palestine in 1947/8
- Malaya received heavy investment for its rubber/tin industry
*The colonial Development and Welfare act of 1940* formed foundation for this:
- wrote off colonial debts
- provided colonial loans of up to £5 million per year
*Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1945*:
- provided further aid of up to £120 million over 10 years
- required each colony to produce 10 year plan of how it would use said funds
26
contraction of empire post ww2 + significance
- loss of Singapore to Japan in 1942 (largest British surrender in history, devastating as they'd invested £25 mill in naval base)
- By 1942, Japanese seize Hong Kong, Burma and Malaya
+ Japanese success ended myth of 'white invincibility'. GAVE CONFIDENCE TO INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS ACROSS SE ASIA
- some sided with japanese (30,000 indian troops join Indian National Army, to rid asia of british)
- Aung San led Burma independence army (fought british)
27
britain trade/commerce interwar years
Exports to empire as % of overall exports: rose 7% from 1913 to 1934 (motor vehicles, railways)
Imports to empire as % of overall imports: rose 11% from 1913 to 1934 (wool, rubber, wheat)
imperial preference!!^^
Imperial preference introduced through Ottawa Agreements (1932):
Aimed to boost Empire trade by imposing lower tariffs within the Empire.
- went back to imperial preference by abandoning gold standard in 1931 (after dropping it post ww1) due to the Great Depression
- sterling area: countries fix their currency to the £ (market stays open and investment still profitable)
- exports to India and Burma fall as japanese and dominions rise in dominance
28
Govt of india act (first one) + what it is + significance + limitations
**December 1919 Government of India Act:**
- 1918 Montagu-Chelmsford reforms provided basis for Government of India act.
**Chelmsford warned Britain needed to be more responsive to Indian demands**
British use report to make act: It made concessions but also reaffirmed that the viceroy was the ultimate power.
- Indians in government: advised the viceroy, had designated Indian members. Would have been educated and brought up in British institutions.
- split up into two authorities creating a *dyarchy*
- **British members dealt with areas like defence, foreign relations and taxation. Indian members dealt with education, sanitation and agriculture.** (so its internal vs external affairs)
- British hoped the concessions would reduce support for INC, saw them as first step towards Indian self government
- INC criticised it as too limited, especially with real power remaining with the British.
- NO DOMINION STATUS
29
How did the events of pre 1919 push india to independence?
- As a result of the govt of India act, greater number of Indians enfranchised, however only 10% of adult male population
- **Representation of the People Act 1918→ gave women IN ENGLAND over 30 the vote, shows how India still not being treated the same as no women had the vote after the war.**
- Rise in food prices, due to loss of German market. Most people saw decline in purchasing power.
- Rural areas struggled from loss of labourers going to war
30
What is Rowlatt act + significance
**Rowlatt Act→ March 10th 1919**
Britain take carrot and stick approach (govt of india act was carrot, this is stick)
- Indians could be arrested on suspicion and kept in jail without trial for 2 years
- could no longer take part in certain religious, political activities
31
Response to Rowlatt Act + significance/consequences
AMRITSAR MASSACRE
**In response to the new policies, a nationwide strike was called by Gandhi on 6 April 1919.**
- Hindus and Muslims joining together for a procession and Gandhi’s protest
- turned violent after two prominent leaders were arrested
→ 20 protesters shot
- causes riot in which 5 British officers killed
General Dyer brought to control situation
Makes series of proclamations:
- No gatherings allowed, all will be fired upon
- **They didn’t actually post these posters in the correct place, only announced to about half the city**
- Jallianwala Bagh, Dyer travels here on 13 April 1919
- Dyer used Indian troops to do this, but from far removed areas so they didn’t sympathise
- Did not try and disperse crowds, simply went and used force
- **Indian deaths→ 1500**
**Massacre consequences**
- More people join nationalist movement→ loss of faith in British rule/justice
- Gandhi steps back and calls off campaign
- Dyer asked to resign but £23,000 was raised for him, described as the man who saved India by the Morning Post
- Creates distrust among Indians, **no longer have a moral justification.**
turning point from just moderate petitioning/ nationalism to full blow discontent
32
Chauri Chaura incident + significance
Gandhi calls for non cooperation movement from 1920
In Chauri Chaura, group of protesters participating in the movement clashed with the police.
**Chauri Chaura incident (Feb 1922)**
- peaceful protest turned violent
- Gandhi ends civil disobedience because of violence
33
What did Gandhi do (apart from non-cooperation movement + strikes) and significance?
Gandhi holds salt march→ 12th March 1930
- 240 mile trek
- show of defiance
- hard to suppress
Significant because 80,000 arrested, authority undermined
34
Round table conferences + significance
independence movement triggered two 'round table conferences' in London in 1930 and 1931
- Gandhi misses first (imprisoned) but represents INC at second
No agreement reached, British won't accept dominion status (economic + strategic importance and doubts over competence of Indian rulers)
35
Balfour declaration
- 1926
formalised idea of British Commonwealth as a "community of nations" rather than top-down empire.
It acknowledged that Dominions were autonomous and equal in status to Britain
36
Statute of Westminster
- 1931
Official independence afforded to some dominions, british laws could not be enforced here without consent
set scene for indian nationalism: they see other colonies receiving their independence
37
Government of India Act (second one)
- made provinces self governing, essentially abolished dyarchy at provincial level (although Viceroy could suspend this)
- Expanded the vote to 35 million
- Opposed by Congress Party→ fell short of self governance enjoyed by white settlers
failed once again to satisfy nationalist demands
38
Cripps mission + significance
1942 sent by British
- under labour politician (sir cripps)
- Britain needed Indian war support due to uncertainties in the East
Indian nationalists were demanding concrete post-war independence guarantees in return for war support
Granted:
1. Post-War Dominion Status
2. Right of Provinces to Opt Out
3. British Control During the War
INC oppose it because:
1. No immediate transfer of power.
2. Viceroy retained wartime control.
3. The "opt-out" clause was seen as a step toward partition, which the INC opposed.
Muslim league also oppose as it did not guarantee the creation of separate Pakistan state up front
39
Quit India Movement
1942 August
Gandhi and INC launch campaign, calling for Britain to leave India entirely
British respond by imprisoning INC leadership. Campaign failed due to heavy suppression and bad organising
40
India during the war + significance towards independence
- Imports of Indian goods and exports to India fell during the war→ important because economic value had been the driving factor
- During the war Britain spent nearly £1Bn on India. **In 1945 Britain was economically exhausted (debts towards India and USA to fund war effort).**
- In **1945 the Labour party won with a large majority**. New Prime Minister Clement Attlee was in favour of Indian independence
41
impact of new labour govt on indian independence + other reasons for independence
1945 new labour govt focused on domestic issues
+ fear of having to spend to suppress a potential Indian resistance
+ India no longer great market for British cotton exports -> lack of economic benefit
+ In February 1946, there was a mutiny in the Indian Navy. It spread to the Indian Army and the British realised they could not continue to govern India.
42
The Cabinet Mission + limitations + significance
The Cabinet mission
- plan to create a united India which would handle its own affairs
- Nehru signs and says pakistan would soon be forgotten
- Jinnah feels this makes him look weak because he’s accepted the British deal while Nehru has accepted it and said he will just ignore it after.
- Jinnah believed Indian Muslims would constantly be oppressed by the Hindu majority if they stayed as one.
causes Jinnah to react badly
43
Jinnah reaction to Cabinet mission + significance
- Jinnah feels he has been set up, that the plan was secretly being made by Nehru
- **Jinnah calls for ‘Direct action’ protest (August 1946)** to put pressure on Nehru and British
- had anticipated a peaceful protest but it **ended with more than 5,000 deaths.** British unable to stop it.
- **Direct Action showed just how deep the divisions went.** There could never be a single state solution. > pushes british towards independence
44
when was Independence/partition + consequences
August 15th 1947
+ at least a million died from violence
45
Gandhi impact + significance and beliefs
Organised:
- non-cooperation movement 1920
- civil disobedience 1930-1
- Quit india movement 1942
- fasted in protest of violence between religions. These brought fighting to halt, eg fasted for several weeks in 1947/8
Beliefs:
- clear about importance of political non-violence (Satyagrah) but vague about his goals (other than removing british)
- strongly opposed partition (too idealistic)
- strongly campaigned for harmony between hindus and muslims (equal rights for both religions
- INDIA TO REMAIN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
- rejected caste system
Significance: Gandhi's methods made it hard for british to respond. He undermined their authority, they saw themselves as liberal and peaceful people, believed in well being of their colonies. Non violent resistance was effective in hurting economic interests, forced them to use violent repression which was difficult as administrators believed in the 'civilising mission' of empire. ALSO EMBARRASSING FOR BRITISH INTERNATIONALLY (said imperial rule rested on ruthless might not peaceful methods)
46
Nehru impact + significance and beliefs
Actions:
- opposed plan balkan, let states opt out of india/pakistan completely
- caused Jinnah to call direct action (after saying idea of pakistan would soon be forgotten)
Beliefs:
- sought modernisation and industrialisation
- supported Britain in ww2 (reluctantly pulled into quit india campaign 1942 tho)
- allied with Gandhi in INC
- UNITED INDIA NO PARTITION
47
Jinnah impact + significance and beliefs
organised:
- leader of All India Muslim League
- Direct Action day 1946
- opposed cripps mission + cabinet mission
beliefs:
- partition: pakistan!
- initially favoured hindu-muslim cooperation but adopted partition in 1940
- Advocated for Muslim political rights, especially after the Congress’s exclusion of the League in 1937 provincial governments.
48
Subhas Chandra Bose impact + significance and beliefs
organised:
- allied with axis powers 1939
- formed the Indian National Army in 1943
49
key takeaway of indian nationalist movement
it was not united, except in the pursuit of ousting british. Very divided on how independent india should look which delayed independence
50
what does nationalism look like in west africa? impacts, significance etc
- colonies like nigeria, sierra leone, gold coast: legislative councils alr by 1914 (limited power + minimal african representation)
- political activists form National Congress of West Africa in 1919 due to weakness of legislative councils
- they are educated elite
Impact:
- some concessions to demands for representation granted in 1920s but nationalists outnumbered by appointed African chiefs.
- New young + radical group of nationalists emerge in 1930s
- West African Students' Union founded in 1925 (brought tgt students from West Africa studying in London + inspired radicalism among them EG AZIKIWE + NKRUMAH
- ww2 accelerated this, in 1945 Pan African Congress held in England (called for independence in Africa)
51
what does nationalism look like in west africa? impacts, significance etc
Harry Thuku organises first East african political movements
- involved in formation of Young Kikuyu (non militant organisation, tried to recover kikuyu lands lost when Kenya was captured in 1920)
1921 founds the East Africa Association (larger + more representative)
- Jomo Kenyatta joins, movement turns into campaign for african rights and representation
WW2 had very radicalising effect, Thuku founds the Kenya African Union (initially Kenya African Study Union) in 1946.
- Jomo Kenyatta leads it from 1947 and it plays crucial role in decolonisation
52
To what extent were African Nationalist movements challenging British rule before WW1?
Not really challenging, but putting pressure for better conditions, and social reform in the form of better education and political involvement of indigenous peoples.
- nationalism was much more diverse than in India
53
government promotion of empire (PC)
govt keen to encourage trade with empire, british people bombarded with imperial imagery:
- 1926 The Empire Marketing Board, promoted consumption of Empire goods through posters + adverts (v impactful in depression bc international trade fell)
- Wembley exhibition 1924: govt contributed half the cost. Each country was advertised + a fun fair. Sports stadium which became legacy. INTENDED TO GIVE EXPERIENCE OF THE EMPIRE 'IN MINIATURE'
- over 17 million visitors in 1924
- 1938 empire exhibition in glasgow attracted 12 million + boosted scottish economy after depression
54
general promotion of empire (PC)
private organisations sought to raise imperial consciousness:
- the BBC (est 1923) took strong stance and covered major imperial events as possible eg *Christmas broadcasts from 1932 including King's speech*
Education:
- focal point of teaching in history, geography in schools. Also literature hailing from Rudyard Kipling still used.
- Historical study of empire at university eg 1917 SOAS founded to train colonial servants
Literature and Film:
- children's lit celebrated empire and books by Henty were popular
- emergence of cinema also major source of imperial culture: films like 'the four feathers' (1939) used empire as backdrop for adventure (empire was place of excitement + british character)
music:
- 1924 Empire Exhibition, Edward Elgar conducted choirs singing 'Land of Hope and Glory'.
- Noel Coward's 1931 song 'mad dogs and Englishmen' had imperial tone but was SELF-MOCKING british ideas about themselves
Advertising:
- private companies promoted products etc, Co-operative Wholesale Society celebrated imperial links with products like tea (had collectible cards illustrating places in empire)
Informal links:
- relatives who emigrated to Australia etc
- relatives in army
55
jingoism post war (PC)
changes in messages conveyed, bc explicit jingoism lost its attraction after horrors of WW1
- empire presented as family of nations led by british
Empire Day may 24th 1916 celebrated across empire not just britain (sense of belonging to family of nations with allegiance to crown)
56
diversity of popular culture + significance
class differences:
- members of affluent middle classes, with family members employed in colonial service were natural supporters of empire
- working class people (without overseas relatives or direct interest) did not feel that it was either relevant or important to them
