US pressure groups

Question 1

What is political pluralism?

Answer 1

A political philosophy that emphasises the benefits of many different groups including the decision-making process.

Government takes into account the views of people from across the whole of society, many of whom are represented by pressure groups

Question 2

What is the traditional motto displayed on the Great Seal of the United States?

Answer 2

‘e pluribus unum’

meaning ‘out of many, one’

It illustrates the USA’s fundamental challenge: How to forge a united nation and a coherent government from such a diverse range of people, states and ideas

Question 3

How has the USA become more pluralistic since the framers?

Answer 3

Framers were white, wealthy and protestant - only voices that were heard

Over time a broader range of female, WC, minority ethnic communities and diverse religious voices began to gain an audience

YET their struggle to be heard on equal terms continues today

Question 4

Which amendment includes ‘the right of the people to peacefully assemble’?

Answer 4

1st Amendment

Question 5

Give two pressure groups that are diametrically opposed to each other:

Answer 5

Americans United for Life (pro-life) vs Planned Parenthood (pro-choice)

PP although not a pressure group it is a major health provider that operates as an interest group

Question 6

What do pluralists argue about democracy?

Answer 6

That it is healthy for democracy as it allows the people and the government to hear both sides of the argument and reach the best decisions after public debate and consideration

Question 7

What 2 major social changes would not have happened without PGs?

Answer 7

Legalisation of abortion

Desegregation (NAACP)

Question 8

What is a key issue with pressure groups needing money to spend on advertising, legal challenges, professional lobbyists and electoral campaign spending?

Answer 8

It means in effect the country is still run by a powerful elite (e.g. the NRA is the most influential PG)

Question 9

What are the four typologies of PGs and give an example for each:

Answer 9

1. Insider - AMA, US Chamber of Commerce and NRA
2. Outsider - Climate Direct Action
3. Promotional - Greenpeace USA, Everytown for Gun Safety and ACLU
4. Interest - US Chamber of Commerce, NAACP, AFL-CIO and Christian Coalition of America

Question 10

What is the term ‘interest group’ also sometimes applied to?

Answer 10

Large corporations if they are acting in a similar way to pressure groups by lobbying the executive and funding electoral campaigns

Question 11

What is a social movement, and give some examples:

Answer 11

Much less formalised PGs with no clear hierarchy of formal membership

Began in the 19th century

Women’s movement, labour movement, ‘new social movements’ such as the environment movement and anti-nuclear movement

Social media: BLM, #MeToo, #Cecilthelion

Question 12

What are the 5 main methods and tactics used by PGs to influence decision-making?

Answer 12

1. Electoral campaigning
2. Lobbying
3. Using the courts
4. Grassroots campaigning
5. Direct action

Question 13

Which PG in 2018 spent $85 million on electoral campaigning, more than any other single-issue group? Did it achieve its aim?

Answer 13

League of Conservation Voters

Yes of winning back the House for the Democrats

Question 14

How do PGs contribute to electoral campaigning?

Answer 14

Endorsing candidates
Making campaign donations
Releasing voting ‘scorecards’ (League’s Dirty Dozen)

Because the amount of official campaigns can raise is limited, PGs often give to PACs and Super PACS

Question 15

Which PG aims to ignite change by getting pro-choice Democratic women elected to office, and how much did they spend on digital campaigning for Kamala Harris in 2020?

Answer 15

EMILY’s List (Early money is like yeast)

$5.5 million

Question 16

What scorecard do the NRA release? Give an example of an A+ ranking:

Answer 16

A-F

Incumbent Mike Kelly

Question 17

What senator has received $14 million in funding from the NRA?

Answer 17

Rep Mitt Romney

Question 18

(synoptic link) How did Mitt Romney vote on the Wormn’s Health Protection Act 2021 which would have made it statutory for health providers to provide abortion services?

Answer 18

Against the bill

Question 19

What is lobbying?

Answer 19

Process where PGs attempt to exert influence onto members of the executive or legislature

Happens more in the USA because of the vast range of access points at both state and federal level

PGs share detailed and up-to-date knowledge of their policy area and therefore are a useful source of info

Question 20

Where is the right to lobbying protected?

Answer 20

In the Constitution’s 1st Amendment

‘Right to petition the government for a redress of grievances’ (a grievance is a complaint)

Question 21

Give an example of a PG with insider contacts:

Answer 21

K Street corridor of influence

Goldman Sachs and JP Morgan had 350 meetings with federal agencies from 2010 to 2012 after the 2008/09 financial crisis - wanted to make sure any measures implemented did not disadvantage them

Question 22

How much was spent on federal lobbying in 2019 vs 2023:

Answer 22

2019 - $3.47 billion

2023 - $4.2 billion

Question 23

Where are professional lobbyists clustered around?

Answer 23

The ‘K Street corridor of influence’ in Washington DC

Question 24

Spending for lobbying is often concentrated on the issue of the day. Who did companies and business PGs lobby regarding Trump’s new trade deal with Mexico and Canada?

Answer 24

The government

Question 25

How much was spent in 2010 over the Affordable Care Act by healthcare companies?

Answer 25

$3.51 billion

Question 26

What evidence shows that lobbying is effective?

Answer 26

One study estimated lobbying spending by US corporate groups led to $90 million of subsidies for businesses

Question 27

Give an example of the revolving door taking place where someone used to work within the executive/legislative and then went to work for lobbying firms:

Answer 27

Lawyer Eugene Scalia first worked for the Bush administration before lobbying on behalf of the US chamber of commerce and represented companies such as Goldman Sachs

Question 28

What 2 acts attempted to regulate lobbying to ensure it wasn’t elitist?

Answer 28

Lobbying Disclosure Act 1995 Open Government Act 2007 Lobbying MUST be disclosed and ‘gifts’ have tight restrictions around them

Question 29

However how can it be seen as elitist?

Answer 29

US chamber of Commerce has great influence because it spends more on lobbying than any other organisation ($77 million in 2019) It successfully convinced Congress to pass the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement

Question 30

However what could the US Chamber of Commerce NOT convince Trump’s administration to do?

Answer 30

Reverse tariffs on goods from China and the EU despite the negative impact of tariffs on US businesses

Question 31

Although Trump claimed he would ‘drain the swamp’, how many lobbyists did he hire to work in his government (4 times more than Obama hired in 6 years!)

Answer 31

281

Question 32

Which lobbying firm did Trump have close ties with? Who did they lobby on behalf of Trump?

Answer 32

Ballard Partners - named the most powerful lobbyist in Trump’s Washington They lobbied the Florida state government - top spender in 2024 with $8.55 million Successfully lobbied congress with the American Innovation Choice Online Act 2022 Once Trump became president they gained 100 clients in less than 2 years earning more than $28 million Also an example of revolving door syndrome as many precision worked for the executive or legislature

Question 33

How do PGs use the courts? BLURT EVERYTHING YOU KNOW

Answer 33

Amicus curiae briefs are evidence based- record 148 for Obergefell Briefs often written by professionals Green brief if it comes from outside the government Brief for Jewish War Veterans mentioned by Ginsburg in the final ruling - BUT court did rule against them Successes: Obergefell, Brown, Roe ACLU challenged Trump’s 2017 ban on trans people from the military - as if 2021 there is no ban - they also challenged his muslim ban which forced him to include non muslim countries 1950s 1 per case 2019 16 per case 2019-20 10% were mentioned in rulings Elitist? - Yea - 2019-20 40% of green briefs were written by wealthy PGs such as the ACLU Crowdfunding - US Alcohol Policy Alliance in 2018 briefs were rejected because donors were anonymous

Question 34

What is a pressure group’s ‘grassroots’? What are the methods used?

Answer 34

Its membership Members pay fees and play a crucial role in campaigning Emailing, phoning or connecting members of congress and federal states via social media

Question 35

Give some high profile direct action events:

Answer 35

Force rather than persuade Civil Rights Movement - marches and protests led by MLK Jr - non violent tactics such as ‘sit ins’ and bus boycotts Anti-Vietnam war protests in the 60s and 70s - Students for a Democratic Society and SANE organised huge public protests - 1967 500,000 participants in New York - became more violent over time with breaking police lines and 800 veterans threw their medals infront of the Capitol Polls in 2020 estimated between 15 and 26 million people participated in BLM marches at some point

Question 36

Is direct action effective? Yes:

Answer 36

Civil Rights movement clear case in point , as well as anti-Vietnam war protests Generates much publicity and media attention - BLM clear case in point - 140 cities in the US took part Sometimes violence is effective - again with BLM

Question 37

Is direct action effective? No:

Answer 37

Violence may alienate the public Authorities respond with tear gas and rubber bullets Trump threatened to send military in to BLM protests Organisation known as the Weatherman, a faction of the Students for a Democratic Society carried out a bombing campaign from 1969 with the aim of destroying ‘US imperialism’ with binding focused on govt sites - the group were drove into hiding by the FBI Failed mob insurrection of the Capitol 2021

Question 38

PG funding of elections US PGs spend millions of dollars in electoral finance helping to get political candidates elected. The NRA is largely known for its tactics of electoral campaigning. Give some key facts about the NRA:

Answer 38

5 million members Rep candidates received 98% of funding from the NRA in 2016 They have also spent money in primaries OPPOSING moderate Republicans (those with an F rating such as Richard Lugar) Donations to Blue Dog faction members in the Democratic party such as Henry Cuellar 2016 spent an eye-watering $52.5 million on electoral campaigning However its revenue from membership fell between 2016 and 2018 so they spent much less in the 2018 midterms (Everytown for Gun Safety outspent them for the first time!) $30 million was spent promoting Trump’s 2016 presidential campaign

Question 39

However despite the NRA’s funding of Trump, they did not enjoy his unconditional support. How?

Answer 39

Trump’s administration introduced a national ban on bump stocks, and Trump criticised a Rep senator of not including an age limit on his bill for background checks for guns because he was ‘afraid of the NRA’

Question 40

How much did the NRA spend in 2020?

Answer 40

$23 million ($16 on Trump)

Question 41

What are the 3 effects of funding elections?

Answer 41

1. Funding Washington insiders 2. Reinforcing incumbency 3. Iron triangles

Question 42

Which chamber receives more money? How much did they receive in 2020 compared to the other chamber?

Answer 42

The Senate $1,547 million vs $702 million

Question 43

A total of 96% of the NRA’s 2016 budget was spent on _ senate races and the president

Answer 43

6

Question 44

Why do many PGs, corprations and wealthy individuals prefer to finance Washington insiders?

Answer 44

Because they maintain the status quo, typically support the ‘establishment’ and therefore benefit their organisation (e.g. Hillary Clinton - however she lost, thus highlighting the limits on the power of money)

Question 45

Give an example of a time where funding from a PG was seen as CRUCIAL to a congressman:

Answer 45

2018 pro-life Catholic Democrat Dan Lipinski received support from the SBA List who spent $100,000 on his campaign for a primary race - he won by just 2,000 votes!

Question 46

How does funding Washington insiders reinforce incumbency?

Answer 46

PGs are more likely to fund those already ‘on the inside’ which increases their likelihood of being re-elected 94.5% if House were incumbents in 2022 and 100% of the Senate !

Question 47

What are iron triangles?

Answer 47

Relationship between interest groups, Congress and the executive branch They each gain by supporting each others’ interests

Question 48

How may interest groups influence Congress?

Answer 48

By donating to electoral campaigns Wealthy interest groups may be responsible for a large proportion of employment in a certain congressional district

Question 49

How may Congress influence the executive?

Answer 49

Congress is responsible for funding executive departments and for producing laws that will affect those departments’ policy areas - this gives govt an incentive to develop policy that Congress will approve of

Question 50

How may Congress influence interests groups?

Answer 50

by passing legislation that affects them, and carrying out oversight of their activities via congressional committees

Question 51

What powers do executive departments have over interest groups?

Answer 51

They set the regulations that interest groups must follow

Question 52

How does the executive influence Congress?

Answer 52

by setting the political agenda and determining how the federal bureaucracy will implement Congress’ laws

Question 53

What are the two most cited examples of iron triangle?

Answer 53

Defence Drug companies

Question 54

Defence: the ‘military-industrial complex’ Who raised the idea that powerful corporations could have a negative influence on government?

Answer 54

President D Eisenhower in 1961

Question 55

He argued the ‘military industrial complex’ was becoming too powerful with foreign policies not in the public interest. How much does Lockheed Martin, the largest US defence company, spend on professional lobbyists per year?

Answer 55

$14 million

Question 56

How are defence companies such as Lockheed Martin able to influence members of Congress?

Answer 56

Because Congress(wo)men want to ensure these companies get their desired government contracts so that employment for their constituents is secured

Question 57

When bidding for the contract to build the USA’s most expensive weapon system, the F35 fighter jet, what did Lockheed Martin claim?

Answer 57

The programme would create 125k jobs across 46 states - thus putting pressure on those states’ members of Congress to support it

Question 58

How much did defence companies donate in the 2018 midterms?

Answer 58

$30 million

Question 59

Donations are spread across _____ to maximise their influence

Answer 59

many states and congressional districts

Question 60

What did Joe Courtney get out of sitting on a powerful defence committee?

Answer 60

Substantial donations which made it easier for him to secure fundraising for the construction of 2 submarines a year for his district in 2019-20

Question 61

Which senator owned up to $100,000 of stocks in Lockheed Martin, and so was doubtless pleased when his subcommittee awarded a $1.85 billion contract to the company in 2020?

Answer 61

Senator Roy Blunt

Question 62

When defence companies become integral to the economy of so many states, the…

Answer 62

federal government also has a strong incentive to ensure that they prosper

Question 63

Give an example of how the revolving door syndrome contributes to the formation of iron triangles:

Answer 63

Patrick Shanahan served as Trump’s defense secretary in 2019, and was previously Boeing’s (an aircraft company) senior VP Once in government he oversaw defence spending that directly benefit Boeing including 20 contracts worth $13.7 billion in Sep 2018 alone

Question 64

Drug companies and the revolving door: Who worked for the FDA from 2005 to 2007 before working for several pharmaceutical companies between 2007 and 2017?

Answer 64

Scott Gottlieb

Question 65

Which are more powerful: PGs or political parties? PGs:

Answer 65

Iron triangles allow some large corporations and influential interest groups influence the executive and Congress Campaign donations and professional lobbyists allow PGs to influence members of Congress and the P Corporations provide essential jobs and can become ‘too big to fail’ (such as Lockheed Martin) The ‘revolving door’ of key personnel allows PGs to maintain close relationships with Congress and the executive Large, well-organised PGs can be more focused than large ‘big tent’ parties which contain many conflicting ideas

Question 66

Political parties are more powerful:

Answer 66

Parties formulate policy for ALL areas of government, not just a specific sector or issue like PGs They select and support electoral candidates for the legislature and presidency They wield legislative power in Congress, especially if a party controls both houses They can determine federal government policy when their party holds the presidency

Question 67

The role and significance of PACs and Super PACs What does the term ‘hard money’ refer to?

Answer 67

Donations given directly to a particular candidate

Question 68

What does ‘soft money’ refer to?

Answer 68

Money that is given to a political party or PAC which is NOT used to support a particular candidate - it can however be used for ‘party-building’ activities which may promote the party a candidate represents

Question 69

What does soft money include?

Answer 69

Includes independent expenditure which is money spent campaigning for a particular candidate but without involvement by a candidate of political party (e.g. adverts for example) - no limit on independent expenditure

Question 70

What is a PAC?

Answer 70

A political action committee that rises money for the direct purpose of electing or defeating candidates Hard money contributions capped at $5,000 per donation, per year

Question 71

What is a Super PAC?

Answer 71

A special type of PAC that only deals with independent expenditure Can raise unlimited money as long as it is INDIRECT to candidates and parties

Question 72

What landmark case enabled the use of Super PACs?

Answer 72

Citizens United v FEC (2010) SC ruled first amendment rights to free speech applies to corporations, unions and PGs in the same way it does to individuals In the US spending money on political campaigning is seen as free speech

Question 73

How much did Super PACs spend in 2020? What 2 Super PACs heavily made up this figure?

Answer 73

$1.8 billion - this included $250 million by the conservative Senate Leadership fund and $225 million by the liberal Senate Majority PAC during the closely fought battle for control of the Senate (Dems won)

Question 74

However Super PACs does not atomically translate into power: For example…

Answer 74

$215 million was spent by Super PACs in 2016 on Hillary Clinton who went on to lose, while only $85.5 million went to Trump

Question 75

Do PACs and Super PACs have too much influence in US elections? Yes:

Answer 75

Super PACs allow PGs to bypass campaign finance restrictions PACs and Super PACs are funded by a tiny minority of citizens: less than 1% of adult population funded 2/3 of funding for federal candidates in 2016 A few wealthy donors are able to make enormous contributions to Super PACs, effectively buying 💰 outside influence in politics (e.g. Sheldon Adeleson and his wife donated over $100 million to conservative Super PACs in 2020, including $75 million to Preserve America and anti-Biden Super PAC) Election campaigns of individuals can be transformed by donations or support from PACs and Super PACs so legislators may vote in the interests of their financial backers rather than in the interests of the public Reduced importance of political parties

Question 76

Do PACs and Super PACs have too much influence in US elections? No:

Answer 76

If the USA is to be a pluralist society, PGs must be able to participate fully in election campaigns PGs represent a broader range of issues than those covered by the party platforms One of the largest increases in total election spending was from 2004 to 2008 (before Super PACs!!): Obama rejected matching funds which freed him from spending restrictions- has created a precedent for future presidents Large donations do not guarantee success (Clinton case in point) The public hold members of Congress to account for their actions in election time so legislators MUST vote with public interest in mind or be voted out next election Super PAC spending helps the campaign of political parties, which raise and spend large amounts during election time - in the 2020 cycle the Rep National Committee spent over $500 million and Dem National Committee $325 million

Question 77

In a 2018 study what percentage of Americans supported a constitutional amendment to reverse Citizens United?

Answer 77

75% - including 66% of Republican voters

Question 78

Who promised he would reverse Citizens United but is yet to do so?

Answer 78

Joe Biden - hypocrite much?!

Question 79

are PGs in the USA too powerful? Yes:

Answer 79

PGs are elitist: well-funded interest groups and large corporations have far greater influence than smaller groups that may be more representative of society The lobbying industry exacerbates the problem of elitism as on my wealthy PGs can afford professional lobbyists The revolving door gives corporations, interest groups and lobbying firms excessive influence over members of the executive and Congress Iron triangles can lead to the executive and Congress making decisions that benefit interest groups over the people Some PGs have developed extraordinary influence over Congress ie the NRA preventing gun control legislation 2012 to 2016 despite backed by the president and the public The growing practice of amicus curiae briefs in SC cases favours wealthy interest groups that can afford legal experts Citizens United case increased the role of PGs in funding elections - elitist and unpopular with the public PGs election campaigning reinforces incumbency and can lead to ‘dependency corruption’ in Congress Direct action can lead to violence (Weathermen faction of Students for a Democratic Society) PGs can undermine the role of political parties

Question 80

Are PGs in the USA too powerful? No:

Answer 80

PGs are essential to a pluralist society and are protected by the first amendment Social movements can provide a cheap and effective alternative to the power of wealthy interest groups The right to lobby is protected by the first amendment and lobbying firms are subject to regulations Access does not automatically guarantee influence, and specialist information can be useful for congress(wo)men and members of the executive in writing better laws and regulations PGs play an important role in scrutinising the executive and Congress Legislators are accountable to voters at elections so make decisions in their interests PGs can help legislators protect citizens’ constitutional rights and liberties PGs have brought many successful legal challenges to executive policy and federal laws which have updated the constitution and improved civil rights (such as Civil Rights Act, Roe, Brown) Political election funding by PGs is a form of free speech and enables a pluralist political debate PGs provide important information for the public through voting cues and scorecards Direct action can put important issues on the political agenda and lead to lasting change PGs tend to support the political party that best serves their interests, so they contribute to the US system of ‘big tent’ parties