US 11: The US and the world

Question 1

Why were there changes in US foreign and imperial policies in 1890-1914?

Answer 1

1. Accidental Empire
2. Progressive Imperialism
3. Need for Markets
4. End of West Expansionism
5. Preclusive Imperialism

Question 2

Explain ‘accidental empire’ as a reason why foreign and imperial policies changed.

Answer 2

historians such as Harold Evans 1998 argue that the US didn’t seek an empire and the decision to annex the Philippines was due to the deciding vote of Vice-President Hobart. It didn’t need an empire for economic reasons (huge trade with Britain)

Question 3

Explain ‘progressive imperialism’ as a reason why foreign and imperial policies changed.

Answer 3

• The term was coined first by McDougall in 1997 - US imperialism was motivated by a desire to improve the lives of the non-Americans e.g. removal of yellow fever in Cuba export of American values to less developed countries ⇒ in reality it wanted to dominate and expand their sphere of influence (linked to missionary work)
• Sentiment of the monroe doctrine (WASPS were ‘better than others and it was their role to spread Christianity’)

Question 4

Explain ‘need for markets’ as a reason why foreign and imperial policies changed.

Answer 4

• In the 1950s, William A. Williams said the primary motive for a shift in foreign policy was the need for new markets and economic growth - met by an ‘open door’ policy.
• Niall Ferguson in 2003 said another economic motive could be the 1893 Depression, the USA ended up being faced with a surplus in farm produce

Question 5

Explain ‘end of western expansionism’ as a reason why foreign and imperial policies changed.

Answer 5

Argument that the end of westward expansion meant that the US could turn its head to the rest of the world

Question 6

Explain ‘preclusive imperialism’ as a reason why foreign and imperial policies changed.

Answer 6

• term was first used by William Langer and it refers to the idea of taking colonies before other countries did so first.
• The US wanted to copy the European powers’ attempts to create their empires in Africa and Asia → so they took Latin America

Question 7

What was the argument between expansionists and isolationists?

Answer 7

Expansionists like Roosevelt, Mahan, Sen. Lodge believed in ‘forward’ foreign policy underpinned by modern sea power. → Driven by a ‘civilising mission’ to raise up non-whites

Isolationists like Bryan (pacifist and religious moralist) led American Anti-Imperialism League 1898 along with Cleveland (ex-pres.), Carnegie (steel robber baron) and Samuel Gompers (TU leader)

Question 8

Why did the USA become involved in war with Spain 1898?

Answer 8

A major turning point for American foreign and imperial policy was their expansion into Latin America and the Pacific. Their war with Spain symbolised this.

Question 9

US involvement in the Pacific: Samoa

Answer 9

• PRECLUSIVE imperalism
• 1972 King of Samoa offered the US the naval base Pago Pago on the eastern Island of Tutuila = it was refused but the US became aware of British/German interest in the area (German trading in Samoa became important trading post)
• Samoan Civil war = USxBritain supported one side whilst Germany supported the other -> abolisged monarchy leading the US establishing protectorate in East whilst Germany had colony in West

Question 10

US involvement in the Pacific: Hawaii

Answer 10

• 1898 Hawaii was annexed, it was an important stopping station for US missionaries on way to Japan/China
• Hawaii became increasingly dependent on US economy because of sugar imports by US
• 1887 USA established first major pacific naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii
• 1890 McKinley Tariff removed taxes on raw sugar -> lost trading advantage
• 1891, new Cuban queen led a rebellion -> marines intervened + surrendered in 3 days = USA planned to annex hawaii (people feared them becoming an imperial power)

Question 11

US involvement in the Pacific: The Philippines

Answer 11

• Treaty of Paris 1898 (which ended Spanish-American war) = US could by Philippines Islands from Spain for $20 million
  1. Many thought Americans would ‘civilise’ people by converting them to Christianity
  2. Preclusive imperialism = fear that Philippines would be taken over by Britain, Germany or Japan
  3. Despite wanting independence, could not be returned to Spain or Filipinos = ineffective
  4. Gained support from nationalists like Emilio Aguinaldo by promising independence → didn’t happen = Revolt in 1899 (suppressed in 1902 with military)

McKinley protested that the US was motivated not by greed but a ‘civilising mission’ but Cuba and Philippines were manipulated to gain popular support

The Anti-Imperialist League attacked the government for betraying the traditions of the founding fathers after the conquest of the Philippines (violence, paternalism, racial prejudice against ‘little brown brothers’)

Question 12

US involvement in Latin America: Cuba

Answer 12

• Cuba
  
  • After Spanish defeat, debate started about what to do = given independence or become a colony/protectorate
  • April 1898 Congress passed Teller Amendment which stated US wouldn’t annex it
  • Still there was belief that Cuba couldn’t rule itself + independence might threaten commercial interests
  • This led to 1901 Platt Amendment (gave US control of Cuban financial and commercial affairs)
  • Final treaty with Cuba signed in 1903 which imposed new political system and made economy heavily dependent on USA e.g. Cuban sugar, tobacco tied to US through preferential tariffs + US goods entered Cuba at varying rates
  • US forces withdrew in 1902 but went back in 1906-1909 because of unrest about presidential election
  • USA invaded again in 1912 with marines to help gov. put down revolt of slaves

1901, Platt Amendment authorised intervention in Cuba → incorporated into Cuban-American Treaty 1903

Question 13

US in Latin America: Puerto Rico, Venezuela

Answer 13

• Although no intention to annex Latin America, wanted to extend influence for trade and political purposes
• US business interests sought to exploit ^ and increase living standard

Puerto Rico:

• Island was a Spanish colony, had slight independence before the war -> invaded in 1898 then under was to be administeredOrganic Act 1900

Venezuela:

• 1895 Britain and Venezuela in dispute about border with colony = Pres. Cleveland demanded that British send dispute to arbitration, rejected by PM Salisbury but then threatened by US to send 54 vessels (Venezuela won)

Question 14

US in Latin America: Panama Canal

Answer 14

• Panama Canal1900, McKinley was re-elected, assassinated in 1901, replaced by RooseveltPanama Canal was one of his greatest achievements - vital for expansion of American sea power, trade and strategic interests
  • USA had long supported building of a canal to connect Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
  • US SoS William Seward in 1860s began negotiations with Colombia but stopped by senate
  • 1881 French company who had built the Suez Canal in Egypt started to build Panama canal but suffered financial issues so American company (New Panama Canal Company) took rights
  • Colombia demanded $15 million from US gov. and $10 million from company to build = Roosevelt refused to pay
  Roosevelt’s solution was to create a new country (like a puppet state) → sponsored Panamanian separatists
  • 1903 Panamanians staged national revolt for independence from rule of Colombia + supported by USA = achieved independence and accepted US offer of $10 million for strip of land
  • Completed in 1914
  Important motive was to get access to the Pacific → voyage of the ‘Great White Fleet’ 1907 was a demonstration of US ambitions (16 US warships went on tour)

Question 15

US in Latin America: Nicaragua

Answer 15

• Nicaragua
  
  • Important because of close proximity to possible canal site and high level of economic investment
  • Interests threatened by anti-American president Jose Santos Zelaya (1909 cancelled economic privileges granted to US about mining concerns)
  • Taft sent in marines to install pro-American pres. Who extended American influence by providing huge loans = USA controlled national bank
  • In 3 years Diaz’s position was threatened to USA sent in 3000 troops = set up protectorate

Question 16

US in Latin America: Dominican Republic

Answer 16

• Dominican Republican
  
  • Example of USA using its ‘police power’
  • 1903 Republic defaulted on repayment of American loans worth $40 million
  • Roosevelt reluctant to invade -> 1904 took control of customs rev. + used to pay off debt = ‘Big Stick Policy’

Question 17

US in the Far East: China

Answer 17

• Unlike other ‘great powers’ didn’t want to expand into China
• US SoS John Hay realised Americans would oppose acquisition of territory so 1899 introduced ‘Open Door Policy’ (first note asking states to respect each other’s trading rights in China)
• 1900 uprising called ‘Boxer Rebellion’ against foreigners broke out in China because of instability caused by the decline of imperial rule → was going to be partitioned between European powers → threat to US interests so the sent troops to assist whilst SoS John Hay announced extension of policy asserting principle of equal and impartial trade in all parts of China not just spheres of interest + asserted that US gov. would protect the lives and property of US citizens in China

Question 18

US in the Far East: Japan

Answer 18

• Relations tense at turn of century
• Fear of Japanese modernisation → heightened by seeing their naval efficiency in the Russo-Japanese war
• Japanese immigration into Hawaii and USA but 1900 legislation stopped this = racism upset Japanese along with annexation of Philippines
• USA felt threatened by Japanese navy and ambitions in China
• Threats increased when Japan won Russo-Japanese War1904-5. Roosevelt helped negotiate end of war with Treaty of New Hampshire where Japan was given a free hand in Korea -> Japan blamed him for not forcing Russia to pay ‘war indemnity’
• Roosevelt concerned about Japanese imperialism = 1908 Root-Takahira Agreement signed for better relations => agreed to respect each other’s interests in China and maintain situation in Pacific
• Open Door policy confirmed for USA (without consulting Korea), Japan’s ‘right’ to annex Korea

Question 19

US in Far East background

Answer 19

USA became interested in these countries in 2nd half of 19th century for economic reasons - wanted to develop vast potential of markets

Fear of ‘yellow peril’ increased by social tensions, immigration, instability in China (from the decline of imperial rule) and intimidated by intense modernisation of Japan

Question 20

Who was William Randolph Hearst and the ‘Yellow Press’?

Answer 20

The Yellow Press campaigned for the Spanish-American war after the explosion of the USS Maine. Hearst pushed this case, encourage by business interests and some politicians - well known for ‘Yellow Journalism’ (populist and sensationalist style).

Question 21

What happened in the events of the Spanish-American war 1898?

Answer 21

1. Maine Incident
2. Reasons for US intervention
3. Defeating Spain
4. Results

Question 22

What was the maine incident?

Answer 22

• Maine Incident
  
  • USA choosing to go to war = shift to more active foreign and imperial policy
  • Cuba in sphere of interest according to Monroe Doctrine US was unsure how to react to inner conflict of Cuban revolutionaries against Spain (who controlled them) but both turned to war anyway
  • Private letter from Spain to Washington insulted public and Pres. “(McKinley) was a ‘weak bidder for the admiration of the crowd in his Cuban policy” -> followed by Maine Incident
  MAINE INCIDENT: US ship exploded near Havana harbour, US blamed Spain but it wasn’t them

Question 23

Reasons for US intervention in Spain

Answer 23

• Reasons for US intervention
  
  • Partly inspired by aggressive and patriotic press campaign that inflamed public opinion known as the ‘Yellow Press’
  • Economic motives = to protect US business interests in Cuba but offer deliberate distraction from Depression of 1890s
  • Perhaps inevitable considering Spanish misrule, geographical closeness of Cuba and Monroe Doctrine = needed to restore order
  • Fears that USA would not be able to control independent Cuba - might threaten US in Cuba
  Many historians stress the importance of the ‘Yellow Press’ and desire to join the ‘Great Powers’ (Britain, Germany, Russia)Role of McKinley was debated -> he wanted to maintain stability with Cuba because of sugar; was reluctant to go to war but persuaded by Congress
  • > on the other hand, seems like McKinley wanted to go to war because it was in the interests of the US

Question 24

How did the USA defeat Spain?

Answer 24

• Defeating Spain
  
  • April 1898 - navy attacked Spain in Philippines and defeated fleet outside Manila.
  • Important role in Cuba -> 1 fleet under Rear Admiral Sampson blockading Santiago
  • 2nd fleet under Commodore Winfield Schley blockading southern entry
  • 17000 troops in Santiago, 379 killed, 5000 suffered yellow fever
  • Cuban General Garcia + army of 5000 played important role in defeat of Spanish

Question 25

What were the results of the Spanish-American war?

Answer 25

• Made a national hero out of Theodore Roosevelt who resigned from government to lead the ‘Rough Riders’ volunteer force in the siege of Havana.
• USA didn’t include or consider contribution of the Cubans in final peace settlement with Spain (Treaty of Paris)

Treaty of Paris:

• Cuban independence recognised but USA allowed to possess Guatanamo Bay - Cuba became a protectorate state in 1902
• Spain lose last parts of American empire by ceding Puerto Rico in Caribbean to USA
• Able to buy Philippines

USA demonstrated areas of interest set out in Monroe Doctrine, protected and provided for expansion of economic interest in Cuba

Question 26

What was the Roosevelt Corollary?

Answer 26

• What was the Roosevelt Corollary?marked increase in interest and direct involvement. Roosevelt announced a corollary in Congress 1904 to the Monroe Doctrine → “Right to exercise international power”Roosevelt Corollary - Roosevelt Corollary sanctioned US armed intervention in Latin America when it felt necessary to prevent financial/political collapse -> would be used in future to justify US military involvementHe insisted that L.A would have to pay off their debts = setting up USA as police force throughout the Americas to protect countries from foreign interference + ensure responsible behaviour

Question 27

What was the Alaska Boundary Dispute?

Answer 27

In 1903, Roosevelt settles a long-standing disagreement with Canada and Britain over the location of the southern border of Alaska

Showed his assertive approach → he was key in transforming American foreign policy

• Inaccessible location of border meant it wasn’t fully established in 1867
• Influx of prospectors and merchants during the Klondike Gold Rush 1897 awoke the dispute
• Reduced after the end of the rush and anxieties of Britain and US to maintain relations

Question 28

What was dollar diplomacy?

Answer 28

After becoming president in 1909 William Howard Taft saw Roosevelt having a huge impact on
foreign policy.

He became famous for the policy of ‘Dollar Diplomacy’ using American economic and financial power to secure influence in Latin America and China.

• His way of avoiding direct intervention in foreign affairs by using financial power
• 1909 Taft bought up debts of Honduras to establish American financial control (similar tactics in Nicaragua and Haiti)
• Didn’t work out as intended, 1914 troops had to be sent to Nicaragua to subdue revolt
• Also in China, joined by JP Morgan and European consortium = financed railroad projects in China

Wilson rejected this policy and wanted more ethical one although he still sent troops to occupy
Mexican port of Vera Cruz in 1914

Question 29

Who was Alfred Thayer Mahan (1890-1914)?

Answer 29

1. naval officer, developed new theories about the role and importance of sea power
   
   2. Wrote books like ‘The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890)’ which impacted US naval policy
   3. Collaborated with Roosevelt who was also assistant secretary in 1890s

Question 30

What was Wilson’s idea of ‘moral diplomacy’?

Answer 30

• Wilson and SoS William Jennings Bryan believed in their apparent responsibility to improve the lives of foreigners = ‘moral diplomacy’ where the desire to do good would govern US policy
  
  • Both he and SoS argued that disputes should be settled peacefully i.e. “The Prince of Peace” lecture
  • Belief that US was morally superior, they could benefit others… = defined as Wilsonianism
  • USA gave Colombia $20 million in reparations for Panamanians rebelling against rule in 1903, despite this Wilson continued intervention in Latin America (extending policies of Roosevelt and Taft)
  • Wilson turned away from Dollar Diplomacy and reinstated Open Door Policy
  • He recognised China in 1911, but intervened in Mexico (when revolution threatened US)
  • As a result of occupying Vera Cruz, he was criticised by Antis for intervening at all, and by Roosevelt and Lodge for not being harsh enough

Question 31

What was Wilson’s definition of idealism?

Answer 31

• What did he declare?He declared that future co-operation with Latin America would only be possible with ‘just’ governments - he would oppose dictatorships or revolutionary governments = taking Roosevelt Corollary further
• Define the goalGoal was to ‘support the orderly processes of just government based upon law and not upon arbitrary or irregular forces’
• What did it achieve?
  • This idealism achieved:*
  • He fought against concessions e.g. insisted that congress repealed 1912 law exempting US coastal shipping from paying tolls to the Panama Canal
  • US interests built highways, bridges, airfields, hospitals and schools and set up telephone services
  He
  involved USA more than any previous

Question 32

Explain the onset of the war, 1914

Answer 32

• Explain the onset of the war, 1914August 1914, USA adopted policy of neutrality until April 1917It was a European war between the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) vs. Triple Entente (France, Tsarist Russia and Britain)Became a deadlock by December 1914, costs made fronts fail to break the stalemate ⇒ all under huge economic strain1917 - downfall of Tsarist regime and addition of US changed the balancedownfall of Tsar = Entente were now fighting for democracy

Question 33

What were reasons for neutrality?

Answer 33

• Public Opinion
  
  • US public thought that Europe had nothing to do with them
  • Feeling that wars were wrong and achieved nothing
  • 29 August 1914, 1500 marched (NY) in black robes to beat of drums to protest
  • SoS William Jennings Bryan began to organise campaigns against war
• Wilsonianism
  
  • Sought neutrality + regarded self as honest broker to negotiate peace settlement (applied Christian morals)
  • Declaration of Neutrality 1914 = offered to mediate (needed to gain trust of parties + go above neutrality), advised public not to pick side + wanted it to end
  • Feared war would suck US in, get worse

Question 34

What were tensions concerning neutrality?

Answer 34

• Pro-British feelingWilson’s advisers favoured the allies (+ British)
• Anti-German feeling
  • Agreed with advisers (Colonel Edward House & Robert Lansing) that Germany posed a threat to the USA + would be better to help allies
  • Previous confrontations in Samoa 1889, he worried about their interests in Latin America
  • In message to congress December 1915, Wilson attacked German-Americans for disloyalty to USA

Question 35

How did trade affect neutrality?

Answer 35

• How did trade affect neutrality?
  
  • Allies benefitted more than Central Powers from trade than the USA
  • 1914 -> exported $549 million to Britain + trading surplus of $300 million; $344 million to Germany with $154 million profit
  • Some favoured prevention of trade with any countries at war + other argued that continuation would bring prosperity
  • Only would remain if US got 40% revenues from tariff
  • Trade favoured allies more than Germans because of effectiveness of British blockade = stood at $3.2 bn 1916 (10x that of Central Powers)
  • 1916, US trade was 1% of what it was in 1914
  • Allies borrowed $7 bn from USA by 1918 + by time of peace settlement = $10.5bn

Question 36

What was the freedom of the seas?

Answer 36

• What was the freedom of the seas?
  
  • Laws of sea let countries at war blockade enemy ports and seize cargo classified as ‘contraband’
  • In early stages of war, British seized US ships = similar to British blockade in Napoleonic wars
  • Wilson could’ve protested but he wanted allies to win + Americans were treated with courtesy and no loss of life (in contrast to German development of submarine warfare)

Question 37

What was unrestricted submarine warfare (Feb-Aug 1915) AKA: U-boat warefare?

Answer 37

• Tried to wrest control of seas + starve Britain into surrender + break deadlock of trench warfare
  
  • Feb 1915 declared that British waters were war zone and they would sink any ships en route to Britain (including neutral)
  • Would deploy new submarine fleet
  WILSON
  responded by warning them that they’d be held accountable for lives of
  Americans but some thought it was a reasonable tactic = ensure no one headed
  for BritainSoS William Jennings Bryan said that merchant ships carrying war supplies couldn’t
  rely on presence of women and childrenGerman embassy took advertising campaigns in USA to warn Americans not to travel to
  BritainBritish ship - the ‘Arabic’ was sunk in August 1915 with deaths of 2 Americans = agreed
  to abandon U submarine warfare

Question 38

Explain Wilson’s desire for the ‘end of war’

Answer 38

1912, he had spoken
about a world in which there was no more war + 4 ideas for the survival of
humanity:

- Some sort of international association for nations to join
- Guarantee of rights of all peoples
- Internationally agreed sanctions for aggressors
- Removal of the manufacture of munitions from profit-making private concerns to government

Formulated 14 points
as a basis for a lasting settlement 'Peace Without Victory' speech

Question 39

What was the failure of peace initiatives?

Answer 39

If Wilson entered
the war, US would lose image as a peacemaker.

He sent envoy
Colonel Edward House twice to Europe in 1915-1916 to negotiate truce didn't
work

Question 40

What were reasons for the USA’s entry into the war

Answer 40

1. Resumptions of unrestricted submarine warfare
2. German activities within the USA
3. Zimmerman telegram
4. Declaration of war

Question 41

Resumptions of unrestricted submarine warfare

Answer 41

• 31 Jan 1917, Germany gave 8 hours’ notice that it would sink all ships
• Wanted to intensify U-boat campaign, if USA declared war as a result, German gable was that Allies both lacking foodstuffs and materials = surrender
• Wilson privately considered Kaiser as insane + broke off diplomatic relations but in 1917, US ships were sunk by U-boats

Question 42

German activities within the USA

Answer 42

Wilson distrusted many German-Americans and accused them of espionage = exaggerated but true partly

In 1916, Wilson intervened in Mexico again but in 1917, it was fear of German interference in Mexico that triggered the decision to enter the war

Question 43

Zimmerman telegram

Answer 43

• Coded telegram from German Foreign Secretary to German Ambassador in Mexico Jan 1917 = 1917 told to propose Mexican government with secret alliance with Germany (they’d get back Texas, Arizona and New Mexico if joined side) -> telegram intercepted by US Ambassador in Britain
• With civil war they weren’t in position to make war with USA

Question 44

Declaration of war

Answer 44

• April 1917 Wilson asked Congress for authority to make war on Germany = realised he had no choice
• Allies in trouble -> 1 million tons of Allied shipping was sunk by U-boats by March 1917
• Worry that defeat was likely is US didn’t involve + only belligerents could influence now

Question 45

What were different interpretations of these reasons?: Economic and isolationist debate

Answer 45

• Those like C. Hartley Grattan and Walter Mils saw Wilson as a dupe (swayed by special relationship with big business) - their evidence being how export to Allies brought USA out of Depression in 1914 and how Bryan resigned because he felt loans and exports were compromising neutrality
  
  • Charles Beard developed argument further stressing that the pressures for entry into war came from ordinary business interests
  • Many historians supported isolationism during the inter-war years + deployed arguments to reason that entry into the war was wrong
  • Many felt that WW2 discredited their arguments due to constant rise of Nazi Germany but recently some have reconsidered them using more refined economic data
  • US exports doubled as % of GNP 1914-1916, 70% went to Europe
  • Historians no longer see economic reasons as significant by 1916, US economy was so healthy that it would make no difference if the Allies broke trade ties

Question 46

What were different interpretations of these reasons?: Moral crusade

Answer 46

• 1950s Carl N. Deger thought that main reason for involvement was legalistic. = Wilson’s concept of neutrality rights followed established international law
  
  • Harold Evans in 1990s argued that Wilson followed a moral principle believing USA needed to fight in order to make the world better = contrasted Roosevelt with Wilson (says Roosevelt would’ve gone to war earlier to defeat Germany but Wilson went to destroy old forms of diplomacy + make new world based on rights)
  • Ross Kennedy in 2008 developed this theme = said Wilson blamed old European reliance on balance of power for military expansion which led to war. He argues that Wilson had the same Allied war aims (to create peace by having Germany return lands before they could trust them)
  • 1960s Hugh Brogan felt Germany left Wilson with no choice but to go to war (Feb 1917 Germany renewed submarine warfare hoping to defeat Britain and France before USA was ready to intervene). USA didn’t necessarily share the same aims = ‘Allies thieves, Germans murderers. We choose thieves because it is the lesser evil’