Urology Flashcards
A 67-year-old man presents in painful retention of urine with a prior history of intermittent macroscopic haematuria for two months. Attempts at urethral catheterisation have failed.
Investigation?
Cystoscopy.
This patient is in retention but urethral catheterisation has failed. Suprapubic catheterisation is contraindicated as he may have a bladder tumour accounting for his history of haematuria and he should therefore undergo cystoscopy and insertion of a catheter.
An 11-year-old boy presents to the Emergency department after losing control of his bicycle riding down a hill and crashing into a wall. He has macroscopic haematuria. On examination, his pulse is 90 bpm, blood pressure is 110/70 mmHg. He has no other injury.
Investigation?
CT
The presence of haematuria (micro or macro) following a history of trauma in a child necessitates imaging. The investigation of choice is a CT with contrast, with delayed films to demonstrate the collecting system.
A 36-year-old female with no prior medical history presents on the emergency take with right sided loin to groin pain, rigors, pyrexia of 38.5oC. Bedside testing reveals microscopic haematuria, heart rate 100 bpm, a BP of 100/60 mmHg with normal urea and electrolytes. An x ray of the kidneys, ureter, and bladder (KUB) reveals an 8 mm opacity in the region of the right vesicoureteric junction and ultrasound shows a right sided hydronephrosis.
Management?
Cystoscopy and retrograde ureteric stent.
The patient illustrated has an infected obstructed system. The stone is at the vesico-ureteric junction so should be treatable by cystoscopy plus stent (+/- stone extraction)rather than a percutaneous nephrostomy tube.
A 24-year-old man was riding his bike home from the pub and crashed into a parked car. He is unsure of how it happened but he has no other injury aside from bleeding per urethra and is unable to pass urine.
Investigation?
Ascending urethrogram.
In trauma where there is blood at the external meatus an ascending urethrogram should be performed prior to catheterisation. If this confirms urethral injury a suprapubic catheter should be placed.
A 76-year-old man presents to hospital for the first time passing only very small volumes of urine and feeling generally unwell. He has a urethral catheter in place which has not drained any urine since being placed on arrival in the Emergency department.
Serum biochemistry reveals:
Sodium 135 mmol/L (133-144) Potassium 6.4 mmol/L (3.5-5) Urea 45 mmol/L (3.5-8) Creatinine 470 µmol/L (50-100) Rectal examination reveals a clinically locally advanced malignant prostate gland.
Investigation?
CT urography
This man has ureteric obstruction due to prostate cancer. He should be treated with percutaneous nephrostomy tube insertion to treat his renal failure.
Although this man is now oliguric his renal function may have been deteriorating for some time as the tumour has been growing and occluding his urethra. He is likely to be generally unwell due to progressive uraemia. His renal failure needs careful management but it is also important to be sure of the diagnosis before a percutaneous nephrostomy in case there is a renal/ureteric cause.
In this setting, a CTU is the procedure of choice in defining the anatomical location and extent of the obstruction. This patient is likely to require renal support regardless of the use of contrast.
A 55-year-old male, who had his right kidney removed five years previously for a renal cell cancer, presents with left loin to groin pain and absolute anuria. He is apyrexial, pulse 80 bpm regular, blood pressure 140/70 mmHg. A KUB and non-contrast CT reveal a 5 mm opacity in the left ureter at the level of L4. Serum biochemistry reveals: Sodium 134 mmol/L (133-144) Potassium 5.3 mmol/L (3.5-5) Urea 15.3 mmol/L (3.5-8) Creatinine 390 µmol/L (50-100)
Treatment?
Cystoscopy and retrograde ureteric stent.
This gentleman has an obstructed single kidney and should be treated with retrograde ureteric stent insertion as there is a risk of damage to the kidney with percutaneous nephrostomy tube placement.
An 83-year-old man presents with a three day history of macroscopic haematuria with clots. Over the last 24 hours he has found it increasingly difficult to pass urine and is now in considerable discomfort.
Treatment?
This man is in clot retention and should be treated with the insertion of a 3-way catheter and bladder irrigation.
A 40-year-old man with a history of gout presents with right renal colic. A KUB does not demonstrate any renal tract calcification, non-contrast CT shows a stone in the right mid ureter.
Diagnosis?
Hyperuricaemia
Hyperuricaemia is associated with gout and results in uric acid stones, which are not visible on plain x ray. Treatment is with allopurinol.
Metabolic causes account for approximately 50% of urinary tract calculi.
Metabolic disorders result in an increase in the concentration of substances in the urine that constitute stone formation.
Absorptive hypercalciuria is the most common abnormality detected in patients with calcium oxalate stones and is due to increased intestinal absorption of calcium.
Treatment is aimed at binding calcium in the gastrointestinal tract and thus reducing its absorption.
A 15-year-old boy presents with a good history of right sided renal colic. KUB does not reveal any renal tract calcification, but a lower ureteric calculus is demonstrated on non-contrast CT.
Diagnosis?
Cystinuria
Cystinuria is due to an inherited defect in cystine, lysine, argnine and ornithine metabolism. Cystine is insoluable in urine and its excretion results in stone formation. Patients usually present after puberty and the stones are often not visible on plain x ray.
Lesch-Nyhan syndrome (LNS) is a rare X linked recessive condition associated with deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase giving rise to hyperuricaemia. The symptoms of LNS usually appear between the ages of 3 and 6 months.
A 55-year-old female with a history of depression presents with left renal colic, KUB / IVU show a calculus at the left vesicoureteric junction. Biochemistry reveals a serum calcium of 2.85mmol/l.
Diagnosis?
Hyperparathyroidism
Renal hypercalciuria occurs when the kidneys fail to conserve calcium, treatment is with a thiazide diuretic.
Hyperparathyroidism is more common in females, particularly middle aged and is recognised by the finding of raised serum calcium associated with a raised or normal PTH. Patients will often complain of associated depression, abdominal pains, constipation, bone pain/fractures, duodenal ulceration and pancreatitis may occur.
Rather than any of the other diagnoses associated with hypercalcaemia, the most likely cause in this case is hyperparathyroidism.
A 73-year-old man presents as an emergency with general malaise and a long history of worsening lower urinary tract symptoms of bladder outlet obstruction. Examination reveals a markedly enlarged bladder; rectal examination reveals a large smooth, soft, symmetrical prostate gland. Serum biochemistry reveals Sodium 134 mmol/l (133-144) Potassium 6.2 (3.5-5) Urea 34.2 mmol/l (3.5-8) Creatinine 453 µmol/l (50-110)
Diagnosis?
Obstructive uropathy
This patient presents with a long history of bladder outlet obstruction symptoms preceding his acute presentation with renal failure. His prostate is clinically benign.
His renal failure is due to bladder outflow obstruction and consequent obstructive uropathy. He should be treated with insertion of a urinary catheter, insertion of IV cannula and IV fluids, hourly urine output (as he is likely to undergo a post-obstructive diuresis) and monitoring of his renal function.
A 66-year-old man presents to the outpatient department with a history of worsening symptoms of bladder outlet obstruction over the last six months. He had a transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) for benign disease four years previously. Rectal examination reveals a small prostatic remnant and a flow rate shows a flat trace with a maximal flow of 4 ml/s.
Diagnosis?
Bladder neck stenosis
This patient presents with worsening lower urinary tract symptoms following a TURP. The presence of a flat trace on the uroflow would suggest a stricture - either urethral or bladder neck. Bladder neck strictures are a complication of TURP and are more common in patients who undergo a TURP on a small prostate.
A 76-year-old man presents to the physicians ‘off his legs’. He has a three month history of back pain. Clinical examination reveals loss of perineal sensation, lower limb weakness, and a large hard craggy prostate gland. Biochemistry reveals a PSA of 436 ng/ml.
Diagnosis?
Metastatic prostate cancer
About half the patients who present with prostatic carcinoma have evidence of metastatic disease on investigation. Many of these metastases are asymptomatic. This patient has spinal metastases with neurological signs. After an MRI he should be treated with high dose steroids (dexamethasone).
Immediate radiotherapy should be given for those with minimal paraparesis. For those with severe neurological signs (severe weakness, unable to walk or paraplegia) or who deteriorate despite radiotherapy, immediate surgery may, depending on the overall prognosis, be appropriate. The survival time is short, especially if the patient is paraplegic at presentation.
A 34-year-old male presents to the Emergency department with painful haematuria following a stag weekend. He has no past medical or surgical history. On examination he is tender in his left loin with the “worst pain of his life”.
Diagnosis?
Renal colic
This is a classic history of a young person who has become dehydrated through alcohol and formed a stone. The diagnosis can be confirmed with a urine dipstick being positive for blood. Treatment will be fluids and analgesia whilst awaiting investigation; one can either use ultrasound (preferred) or intravenous pyelogram (IVP). The ultrasound is preferred since it is quick, cheap, does not involve the risk of contrast and avoids ionising radiation. Most likely this will show that the renal/ureteric tract is clear and if analgesic control is adequate the patient can go home with advice to take fluids, avoid alcohol and see their GP and ensure the haematuria has settled. If the tract is obstructed the patient should be admitted, urea and electrolytes (U&E) monitored. Investigations include ultrasound, CT KUB (again, think of radiation dose if symptoms improving). Lithotripsy, ureteroscopy and percutaneous nephrostomy may be considered (depending on site and circumstance) if there is no movement of the stone and resolution of the obstruction.
A 64-year-old man presents to the Emergency department with severe left loin pain of spontaneous onset. He has no past surgical history but has hypertension controlled by a beta blocker. He is sweaty and clammy.
Diagnosis?
Leaking abdominal aortic aneurysm
Although this is almost an identical clinical scenario to the one above, this man is in the wrong age group for first onset renal colic, but in the right age group for an aneurysm. Clinical examination may not detect a pulsatile mass, but in view of the fact he is clammy and sweaty he should be moved into the emergency department resususcitation area, the on call vascular (or general surgical) team notified, cannulated, blood taken for full blood count, U&E, clotting and six unit cross match. Senior surgeons may be able to feel an aneurysm, if not he should have an ultrasound ASAP to assess his aorta. If this study is inadequate a CT should be done. Never send an older gentleman home with renal colic until you are sure that his aorta is normal - it is an indefensible error!
A 68-year-old gentleman presents with painless haematuria and loss of weight of four months duration. He worked in the dye industry before his retirement.
Diagnosis?
Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder
Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder is common in men over 50 years of age. The aetiology of this condition includes cigarette smoking, working in the aniline dye and rubber industry (because of excretion of beta-naphthyl-amine in the urine), and long term catheterisation in paraplegic patients. Patients may present with painless haematuria, dysuria, frequency and urgency of micturition.
A 52-year-old smoker presents with haematuria and occasional clots. On examination, he has a left-sided varicocele.
Diagnosis?
Adenocarcinoma of the kidney
Adenocarcinoma of the kidney affects more males than females (2:1) and is more prevalent in patients over 40 years of age. Risk factors include a high intake of fat, oil and milk, exposure to toxins like lead, cadmium, asbestos and petroleum products, smoking and genetic factors. Clinical features include a triad of haematuria (with occasional clot colic), flank pain (in 35-40%) and palpable abdominal mass (in 25-45%).
In men, a rapidly developing varicocele (most often on the left) is a characteristic sign. This is because the left testicular vein drains into the left renal vein, whilst the right testicular vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava. Hypertension, erythrocytosis and hypercalcaemia may also be present.
An 18-month-old infant is brought to the emergency department by the child’s mother who gives a history of failure to thrive, fever and occasional blood in the nappy. On examination, a renal mass is felt.
Diagnosis?
Nephroblastoma Nephroblastoma (Wilm’s tumour) is a malignant mixed tumour seen in infancy. The tumours are usually solitary, soft, lobulated and tan or grey in colour. The infant may present with pyrexia, haematuria (blood in the nappy), failure to thrive, and abdominal (flank) mass. It is usually treated by total nephrectomy followed by radiotherapy or partial nephrectomy in children with bilateral disease.
