Units 3-5 Flashcards
Maturation
Learning, relatively permanent change caused by experience or practice
Classical Conditioning
Pavlovs dog, associating two events together, stimulus and response
Operant conditioning
Learning by avoiding punishment and repeating reward, reinforced behaviors, learn stuff by accident and remember what you learned
Observational Learning / cognitive learning
learn by observing and imitating
John B Watson
Father of Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov
Physiologist, wanted to discover digestive properties of saliva but accidentally discovered classical conditioning
Neutral Stimulus
Stimulus that doesn’t make a response (bell)
Unconditioned Stimulus
What does make a natural response (food)
Unconditioned response
the natural response to the US (saliva)
Conditioned stimulus
same as neutral stimulus (bell)
Conditioned Response
same as unconditioned response (saliva)
Acquisition
The first time the CR is caused by the CS, for this to happen CS comes HALF A SECOND before UCS
Higher-Order Conditioning / Second-Order Conditioning
adding another neutral system to make the process longer, skipping more steps
Extinction
Conditioning, decreasing response to stimulus by removing the unconditioned stimulus (ex not giving food after ringing bell)
Spontaneous Recovery
Random moments after reconditioning where the CR comes from the CR
Little Albert
classically conditioning fear… white rat –> loud noise –> fear
Stimulus Generalization
Response comes from things similar to stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
Opposite of stimulus generalization, ability to tell difference between stimulus
Systematic Desensitization
incremental exposure, slowly exposing you to something so that you normalize it, treats phobias (ex stuffed animals)
Thorndike
creator of operant conditioning
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
starved cats for a few days, placed them in a box with food outside with a button to open the box… trial and error learning
Law of Effect
if behavior is followed by something SATISFACTORY it will occur more, if its followed by something DISSATISFACTORY it will occur less
B.F. Skinner
changes law of effect to behaviors followed by REINFORCEMENT occur more, and things followed by PUNISHMENT occur less
Skinner Box
Rats press bar for food
Shaping
Gradual rewards, use successive approximations to shape… rewarding each step at a time
Reinforcing Stimulus
Outcome that increases likelihood of a behavior, reinforcement
Primary Reinforcement
things we don’t have to learn to like: food, air, sleep, water, sex for procreation… anything for survival
Secondary Reinforcement
Conditioned reinforcement, anything you learn to like… candy
Positive Reinforcement
Add something good so behavior will be repeated… giving candy
Negative Reinforcement
Taking something bad away so you will do it again, avoidance behavior… taking meds
Avoidence behaviors
enacting a behavior to avoid something bad… putting up an umbrella to avoid the rain
Punishing Stimulus
Consequence that decreases behavior, TIME MATTERS
Positive Punishment
adding something bad to reduce a behavior… being given a detention slip
Negative Punishment
Removal of something good to reduce a behavior… getting grounded
Continuous Reinforcement Schedule
giving someone reinforcement after every single time… doesn’t work long term
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Includes ratio and interval schedules… variable is stronger than fixed
Fixed Ratio
set number of behaviors… buy six cups of coffee get a cup free
Variable Ratio
varying amount of behaviors… gambling, selling door to door
Fixed Interval
Fixed amount of time… taking medicine, getting report cards
Variable Interval
varying amount of time, hunting, pop quizzes
Observational / Cognitive Learning
Shaping, Modeling, Vicarious reinforcement, happens more in childhood
Mirror Neurons
Neurons just for watching what happens in an environment, watching and remembering
Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll
teaching aggression, kids would watch an adult beat up a bobo doll and model the behavior
People are more likely to imitate actions if…
Someone is in authority, person is similar in age sex or interests, someone we admire, someone of a higher social status, someone we perceive as warm or nurturing, someone who receives rewards for behavior, when you’ve been rewarded for imitating behavior in the past, if you lack confidence in yourself, or if the situation is confusing or unfamiliar
Modeling
Showing how something is done
Vicarious learning
Model shows behavior and viewers observe and then imitate (ex watching a makeup tutorial and doing it yourself)
Vicarious reinforcement
Watching someone else be reinforcement (ex watching a makeup tutorial and at the end someone else tells the person doing the tutorial they look good)
Vicarious
watching someone else do something and learning… think of youtube tutorials
Social Cognitive Theory
You need to have four things to learn by observing: Attention, Memory, Imitation/Reproduction, and Motivation (MAIM)
Self-Efficacy
How much do you believe you can reach a goal, what do YOU think your limits are… this is the key to successful navigation of goals
Reciprocal Determinism
there’s a triangle of effects between personal factors, environments, and behavior (PFEB)
Memory
Learning that persists over time
Information-Processing Model
encoding memory is like a computer… encode, store, retrieve
Encoding
How do you input and process information (no such thing as multitasking)
automatic processing
unconscious processing, three types space time and frequency, things can become automatic processing
Effortful Processing
Conscious effect that requires attention to process
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating something to remember it
Spacing Effect
Space your rehearsal out so you remember better
Primacy Effect
You remember the first term more
Semantic Distinctiveness
you remember special terms that mean something different than anything else
Chunking
you remember a phrase of multiple terms
Recency effect
you remember the last word
Constructive memory
remembering something that didn’t happen
Visual encoding
encoding pictures
Acoustic encoding
encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
semantic encoding
encoding meaning, like the meaning of words
Implicit / Non declarative Memory
Remembering how to do something without being aware of it, automatically translating the actions
Procedural memories
memories that include movement, ex riding a bike or brushing your teeth (habits)
Conditioned memories
starts as something that you did need to remember than then turned into something you don’t… learned emotional responses to stimuli
Eididic Memory
Photographic memory, mostly seen in kids, can also be sound or taste
Explicit / Declarative Memory
Effortfully encoded and processed memories
Semantic Memory
Remembering facts and knowledge (ex your multiplication tables), includes scripts of what happens in certain situations (ex only the bride wears white)
Episodic Memory
Memories for personal events at a specific place and time (ex where and when your first kiss was)
Long Term Potentiation (LTP)
how memories go from short to long term, which happens when you’re sleeping in the hippocampus
Amygdala
Explicit and Episodic Memory, primary processor for emotional memories
Flashbulb memories
memories of things that happened that were incredibly emotional
Cerebellum
Procedural Memory
Basal Ganglia
Memory retrieval and procedural memory (habits)
Frontal Lobes
Working memory
Retrograde Amnesia
retro=old, when you can’t remember anything before the event, but you would remember your alphabet and how to walk, you can get these back depending on the cause
Anterograde Amnesia
antero=new, damage to the hippocampus where you can’t form new memories, you don’t get these back
Source Amnesia
forgetting the source of a memory (ex when you dream something and you’re not sure if you dreamt it or if it actually happened)
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Debunked cramming with disturbed practice, storage decay and forgetting curve, and much more
Storage Decay / Forgetting Curve
the loss of information after you learn it, as time goes on you’ll remember less and less information
Disturbed Practice
spacing out studying with breaks, cramming doesn’t work
Massed Practice
Cramming
State Dependent memory cues
being in the same biological state as when you learned something makes you better at recalling it (caffeine, hunger, etc)
Mood congruent / Mood dependent memory cues
You are more likely to retrieve info if you’re in the same mood you were in when you learned it, can’t be faked
Context Dependent
you’re more likely to retrieve info if you’re in the same context of environment as when you learned it (ex smelling the same smell)
Interference Theory
P.O.R.N. (Proactive interference is when Old information interferes with new, Retroactive interference is when New information interferes with old
Superstitious Beliefs
Actions that are only incidentally tied to good results (lucky socks)
Effects of Severe Punishment
May cause child to avoid punisher instead of avoiding behavior, may encourage lying to avoid punishment, creates fear that doesn’t promote learning, models aggression
Latent Learning
You can learn something without showing the behavior right away (ex knowing the way to school but storing it until you can drive)
Abstract Learning
Understanding complex cognitive concepts rather than concrete stimuli
Insight Learning
(Wolfgang Kohler), sudden realization, light bulb moment
The Premack Principal
You will do a less desirable activity in order to do a more desirable activity as a consequence
Martin Seligman
Dogs in cage with partially electrified floor either gave up or kept going based on knowledge of how to turn electrification off… helplessness
Learned Helplessness
A mental state where someone gives up and keeps experiencing something bad after learning that they have no ability to change anything
Julian Rotter
Behavior is influenced by social context, locus of control
External locus of control
outside forces control your fate
Internal locus of control
you control your own fate
Self-Control
control your own impulses, especially delaying short term rewards for long term rewards
Synesthesia
Two senses are sensed at the same time where one evokes the other
Sensation
Passively taking in sensory stimuli
Perception
Organizing sensory input into patterns and filing it away, happens in cortices
Transduction
Transforming stimuli to electric neural impulses
Bottom Up Processing
Starting at the bottom at every individual sense and then working your way up to the full picture… putting a puzzle together without knowing the final product
Top down Processing
Drawing on context and expectations, using prior knowledge to find small things
Psycophysics
study of relationships between physical energy and psychological experiences
Absolute threshold
Lowest level at which you can get a stimulus 50 percent of the time
Signal Detection Theory
Predicting how and when you can predict a stimuli’s presence depending on experience, expectations, motivation, and sleep
Subliminal Messages
Messages below threshold for conscious awareness
Priming
unconscious activation of certain associations to predispose your perception, memory, or response
Difference Threshold
“Just noticeable difference” the minimum difference between two stimuli to see the difference 50 percent of the time
Weber’s Law
Bigger stimuli have larger difference thresholds vs smaller stimuli, there’s a percentage difference instead of a constant difference
Sensory Adaptation
After constantly feeling a stimulus you don’t sense it as much (ex not feeling the clothes touching your skin)
Selective Attention
Focusing your awareness on one stimulus, can’t multitask
Cocktail Party Effect
Your ability to focus your attention on one sound (someone talking) while filtering out others (music)
Change Blindness
When you can’t see changes in your environment or objects because your attention is directed elsewhere
Inattentional Blindness
When your focus is directed at one stimuli and you are blind to others
Visual Transduction
Transforming light energy into neural messages, happens in rods and cones
Wavelength
Distance from peaks of waves, affects Hue and pitch/frequency (measured in hertz for sound)
Hue
Dimension of color that’s determined by wavelength
Amplitude
From the bottom to the top of a wave, affects brightness / intensity and loudness (loudness measured in decibels)
Cornea
Transparent tissue in the front of your eye
Iris
The colorful bit, a muscle that pulls the pupil open or closed
Pupil
Adjustable opening where light enters the eye, the black bit in the center
Lens
Behind the pupil that changes shape to focus light / images onto retina
Retina
Light sensitive inner surface of eye, containing rods and cones plus neurons that process information
Visual Accommodation
How your lens changes shape to accommodate close vs far objects
Cones
Light detecting cells, concentrated near center of retina, functions well in well lit conditions, perceives color
Fovea
Center of the retina, contains a lot of cones
Rods
Work well in low light, peripheral vision, perceive black and white
Optic Nerve
Carries neural impulses to the brain
Blind spot
Where the optic nerve makes a hole in the rods and cones, so we have no vision there
Feature Detectors
In visual cortex, specialized neurons for reacting to shapes, angles, edges, lines, and movement in vision
Parallel Processing
Ability for the brain to do multiple things at once… color, motion, shape, and depth are processed simulaneously
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory
Three color theory, all colors are a combination of a red, green, and blue
Opponent-Process Theory
Opposing processes enable color vision, (red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black)
After image
When you can see the opposite of a visual image after removal of the stimulus
Audition
Sound
Sound waves
vibrations in the air
Pinna
The outer, visual part of the ear designed to catch sound waves
Tympanic Membrane
the eardrum, sound waves make the eardrum vibrate (conduction)
Hammer
Malleus, the first of the tiny unbreakable bones in the middle ear
Anvil
incus, the second tiny unbreakable bone in the middle ear
Stirrup
Stapes, the last of the tiny unbreakable bones in the middle ear
Cochlea
Inner ear, coiled fluid-filled tube where auditory transduction occurs, contains corti (tiny hairs)
Place Theory
The pitch of a sound relates to where in the coiled cochlea the sound is recieved by the corti, Hermann von Helmholtz
Frequency Theory
How fast a sound is going into the auditory nerve affects the frequency / pitch
Sound Localization
Sound waves strike one ear before another, and based on that our brain can tell where its coming from
Conduction Hearing Loss
Hearing loss caused by structural damage to the outer and middle ear (could be determined by age, genetics, environment, exposure to noise, and certain illnesses), could be cured by hearing aids
Sensorineural Hearing loss / Nerve Deafness
Damage to corti or auditory nerve, so transduction doesn’t happen, cured by cochlear implant
Cochlear Implant
Hearing aid that translates sounds into electrical signals that stimulate auditory nerve
Gestalt Psychologists
Brains tendency to integrate pieces of info into meaningful wholes, completing patterns
Figure-Ground Pattern
Different images if you focus on the background / figure
Proximity (Gestalt Principal)
object close together are part of the same group
Similarity (Gestalt Principal)
Similar objects are in the same group
Continuity (gestalt principal)
Objects that form a continues thing are part of the same group
Closure (gestalt Principal)
top-down processing, we fill in gaps if we can recognize them
Depth Perception
The ability to see objects in 3d
Binocular Cues
Cues that depend on both eyes
Retinal Disparity
The way we can see depth using the difference in each eye image
Convergence
Using both eyes to focus on an object, moving closer together for close objects and vice versa
Monocular Cues
Depth cues that only need one eye
Linear Perspective
parallel lines get closer together the farther on they go
Interposition
if something is blocking something else, the blocking thing is closer than the blocked thing
Relative Size
Depth cue that things closer are larger and things farther are smaller
Relative Height
Higher things in your vision are farther
Relative Clarity
Closer objects are clearer, farther objects are blurry
Light and Shadow
Dimmer objects are farther away
Texture Gradient
Closer the object the more detail, the farther the object the less detail
Relative Motion
Objects that are still may appear to move, far objects move with you, close objects move backward
Motion Parallax
Objects closer to you move faster than objects that are far away
Perceptual Set
Predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Context and culture effects
Bias to percieve some aspects of stimuli and ignore others which is influenced by emotions, motivation and culture
Perceptual Constancy
Shape constancy and size constancy, objects are unchanging even though our retinal image could change
Lightness Constancy /
An object has constant lightness even while its illumination varies
Perceived lightness
Depends on relative luminance, the amount of light an object reflects based on its surroundings
Color Constancy
objects have constant color, even as senses change
Parapsychology
Paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
Gustation
Taste, chemical molecules in the mouth sense taste using taste buds
Olfaction
Smell, chemical molecules breathed through the nose
Olfactory receptor cells
Located in mucous membrane at top of nose, small hairs serve as sites for odor molecules dissolved in mucus to interact with chemical receptors
Path of a smell
Dissolves into mucus, mucus interacts with olfactory chemical receptors, signals sent to olfactory bulb, info is sent to limbic system
Olfactory Bulb
Structure at tip of frontal lobe where olfactory nerves begin
Pheromones
Airborne chemical signals that send info about reproductive status of a potential mate, illicit emotions in hypothalamus like attraction, sexual desire, arousal
Somesthetic Senses
skin senses, touch, pressure, pain, cold, warmth
Pain
Bodies warning sign something isn’t right, brain can stop it if it needs to
Gate Control Theory
there’s a gate in the spinal cord that switches pain on and off
Phantom Limb Sensations
Amputees feeling pain or movement in nonexistent limbs, brain can create pain
Kinesthesis
sensing the position and movement of body parts
Vestibular sense
sense that monitors your body and head’s position and movement
Change deafness
When people aren’t focusing on change or something they don’t notice it
popout
stimuli that are powerfully, strikingly distinct
Gustav Fechner
Absolute thresholds
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
perception can occur apart from sensory input, telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Tabula Rasa
“black slate”, at birth the human bind is black that we build upon, John Locke
Epigenetics
Someones environment and experience can change at the level
Replicate
Researchers communicate details of what they did and other researchers try to replicate it, if they can the reliability grows
Descriptive research
Measurement of behaviors and attributes through observation rather than experiments, doesn’t test relationships
Case Study
interviews, observation, and records to understand something
Meta-Analysis
Researchers gaining access to large amounts of data that already exist without interacting with a signal participant to look for patterns or relationships
Observer effect
People being watched don’t behave normally
Observer Bias
observers overemphasize behavior they expect to find and don’t notice behavior they don’t expect
Correlational Studies
research used to see if two variables are related, don’t involve manipulation of variables, don’t show causation
Correlation Coefficient
the measure of how close two variables are, ranges from -1 to +1, REPRESENTED BY R, closer to zero = weaker relationship
Illusory Correlation
a perceived but nonexistent correlation
Population
all individuals who could potentially be in a study
Confederate
individuals who seem like participants but are impostors who are actually researchers
Experimenter Bias
error resulting from having unconscious expectations of results
Descriptive Statistics
techniques for organizing and describing data sets, mean, median, mode, range
Standard Deviation
the average distance from the mean for a set of score
Z-Score
number of standard deviations from the mean
Normal distribution
Bell Curve shape, 68, 95, 99
Percentile Rank
percentage of scores in a distribution that a particular score falls above
Statistical Significance
How likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, most psychologists look for 5% or less
Inferential statistics
Being able to draw conclusions from the dataset (analyzing it)
Ethical guidelines
participants must be protected from harm, don’t use vulnerable populations, they must have a signed informed consent, they must have the right to withdraw, keep deception as little as possible and justified, data must remain confidential, animals are better than humans
APA guidelines for animal use
justification, personnel, care and housing of animals, acquisition of animals, experimental procedures, field research, educational use of animals
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
reviews studies to determine if its ethical and follows legal guidelines
Glial Cells
Cells that provide physical support for neurons to grow on (glue), the more glial cells the smarter you are
Sensory / Afferent Neurons
Neurons that carry senses from receptors to brain and spinal cord
Interneurons / Relay Neurons
Communicate from brain and spinal cord, worker bees
Motor / Efferent Neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain to the muscles
Dendrites
branch like extensions from soma that receive electrical messages from other cells
Soma
Cell body of neuron
Axon
Fibers that extend from cell body to terminal endings, carry messages out to buttons
Myelin Sheath
Layer around axon to protect from damage, degenerative myelin sheath is multiple scerosis
Axon Terminals / Axon Buttons / Terminal buttons / axon branches / terminal buttons
end of axon, sends messages to other neurons by releasing neurotransmitters
Neural Transmission
Process where information travels from neuron to neuron
Action Potential
When a neuron is going to fire, positively charged, sodium enters
Resting potential
state of an inactive neuron when not firing, negatively charged, potassium and chloride inside, sodium outside
All or None principal
a message either goes or it doesn’t
Depolarization
sodium enters, mixes with potassium and chloride and changes from negative to positive
Refractory Period
a brief period after firing where a neuron can’t fire again, gates close, repolarization
repolarization
Everything inside a neuron goes back to how it was before it fired
Sodium Ion Pump
When a neuron is going to fire sodium comes in through gates, and after it fires sodium exits
Synapse / Synaptic Cleft / Synaptic gap
the space between two neurons where the chemical message travels
Receptor sites
at the end of dendrites the little things that catch neurotransmitters
Reuptake
Biological basis of depression, stops serotonin from moving on by taking it back up into the buttons
SSRI
antidepressant, Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors
Brainstem
Base of brain that connects to spinal cord
Medulla Oblongata
brainstem, top of spinal cord, controls life sustaining functions, damage = death, involuntary movements
Pons
brainstem, Facial expressions, facial muscles, relaxation
Reticular Formation
brainstem, tube that runs through spinal columm, pathway for interneurons, pain perception, comas
Thalamus
midbrain, sensory information goes here and is sent to the correct place to be percieved, except smell
Cerebellum
midbrain, Muscle movement, coordination, balance, works off of inner ear vibrations, helps judge time
Hypothalamus
Limbic System, homeostasis, controls endocrine system, works with parasympathetic system
Hippocampus
Limbic system, Memory formation while you’re asleep through neural connections
Amygdala
Limbic System, emotion, impulse control, FIGHT OR FLIGHT, extreme emotions, emotional memories
Cerebral Cortex
develops back to front, isn’t fully developed until around 25, higher order functioning
Lobes
where perception happens
occipital lobes
process vision
Parietal lobe
sense of touch, gauge pressure, understand temperature, gain perception
Somatosensory Cortex
Sense of touch
Temporal Lobes
Responsible for sound and being able to meaningfully respond
Wenicke’s area
Left temportal lobe, language components and understanding the meaning of words
Broca’s Area
Controls the ability to speak words, left frontal lobe
Frontal Lobes
everything that makes us human, higher order functions, personality, creativity, problem solving abilities
Prefrontal cortex
judging right from wrong, socially acceptable behavior
Motor Cortex
Ability to move
Functional plasticity
Ability to move functions from damaged area of brain to other undamaged areas
Structural plasticity
Ability to change physical structure of brain due to learning
Consciousness
State of alert, how aware you are
Subconscious
memories and stuff in your mind you can’t access but still effect behavior
Unconscious
hidden memories that influence behavior that can’t be ever known to the conscious mind (psychodynamic perspective)
Preconscious
Items we can access from long-term memory
Nonconscious
Biological functions that occur without your awareness (digestion)
paradoxal state
opposing things happening, brain is conscious but body is shut down, altered state
Pineal gland
melatonin
Circadian Rhythm
16 hours awake, 8 hours asleep
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Runs off daylight, when daylight ends it starts producing melatonin, keeps you awake with the sun
Sleep cycle
90 minutes total, 3-5 cycles a night
Beta Waves
Awake, 15 to 30 hz, alert, anxious
Alpha waves
Light sleep, 7-12 hz, relaxed, ready for sleep
Theta Waves
Early sleep, 4-7hz, stages 1 and 2 of NRem sleep
Delta waves
Deep sleep, up to 4 hz, stage 3 of NRem
NREM stage 1
hallucinations, light sleep, hypnagogic sensations
Hypnagogic sensations / jerks
When your body jerks when you’re sleeping, almost like if you’re falling, NRem stage 1
NREM stage 2
body temperature drops, sleep spindles, sleep talking
Sleep spindle
Sudden burst of energy in theta waves, NRem stage 2
NRem stage 3
Deep sleep, slow waves, memory being processed, growth hormones being produced, immune system refreshes, sleepwalking
REM sleep
beta waves, brain looks like its aware, dreaming
R.E.M
rapid eye movement
REM paralysis
inability to voluntarily move muscles during rem sleep, your brain wakes up but your body is still sleeping
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Measures electrical currents in the brain, and records on an encephalogram, used for sleep studies often
Histogram
Bar graph
infrential statistics
data that allows us to generalize sample data to an entire population
Confirmation Bias
attention to information that confirms our beliefs and ignoring info that contradicts them
Participant Bias
participants try to fit into what they think the researcher wants to find
Expectancy Bias
Distorting your memory to recall events to fit your expectations
Positive transfer
old information promotes the learning of new information
Repression
Psychoanalytical, defense mechanism that says we unconsciously repress painful or unacceptable memories, thoughts, and feelings, motivated forgetting
Reconsolidation
Previously stored memories are retrieved, and altered, before being stored again
Elizabeth Loftus
memory construction, false memories, how memories are changeable and not always accurate, misinformation effect
Misinformation effect
When misleading information distorts your memory of an event
Recall
Retrieving information that isn’t in your conscious awareness
Recognition
Identifying items previously learned
relearning
learning something a second time more quickly
Memory forming process
- Sensory memory - immediate, brief recording of sensory information
- Short-term memory - activated memory that holds a few items briefly
- Long-term memory - relatively permanent storehouse of memories
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
Working memory
Short term memory plus consciousness and incoming auditory and visual information
Iconic memory
for a few tenths of a second we have photographic memory in great detail
Echoic Memory
Even if your attention is elsewhere you can recall the sound and words from the last 3 or 4 seconds
George Miller
Miller’s magic number, we can store 5-9 pieces of information in our short term memory
Millers magic number
we can store seven, give or take two, pieces of info in our short term memory
Hierarchies
Knowing info by knowing a few broad categories that divide up into smaller categories
Shallow Processing
Encoding on an elementary level, just the words letters or just its sound (their vs there), memorizing things without attaching much meaning
Deep Processing
encoding semantically
Memory Consolidation
The neural storage of long term memories
glutamate
LTP enhancing neurotransmitter
Encoding specificity principal
cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be the best help in recalling it
Serial Position Effect
The ways in which you recall the first and last terms in a list
Haptic Memory
brief memory of sensations, decays after 2 seconds
Short-Term Memory (STM)
a small capacity of info in an active, readily available state for a brief period of time
Memory span
number of items a person can remember and repeat back in short term memory… George Miller’s rule of two
Elaborative Rehearsal
Transferring information from the Short-Term to Long-Term memory by making it meaningful in some way
Encoding Failure
When a memory was never formed in the first place
Retrieval Failure
Failing to recall a memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were there when it was encoded
Tip of the Tongue State
The feeling when a memory is available but not quite achievable
Trace Decay Theory
Memories leave a physical or chemical trace in the nervous system
Suppression
Conscious process of trying to forget something that’s distressful
Memory Reconstruction
Approach that memory is a cognitive process and error can occur, and people update their memories with logical processes, reasoning, new information, perception, imagination, etc
Pseudo-Memories
False memories we think are true
Nocicepters
pain receptors
Tinnitus
Phantom Ringing noise to those who have hearing loss or otherwise
