Units 1 Flashcards
What is the working definition of psychology?
The scientific study of the human mind and its functions especially those affecting behavior in a given context
What are two important things to take note of in the working definition of psychology?
- It is a scientific study (meaning psychology is a science)
- Need to take into account “a given context” since the context shapes behaviors of why people do certain things
What did Plato believe?
-That the brain was the seat of mental processes and that certain traits and ideas were innate
-Takes the nature side of the nature vs. nurture argument
What did Aristotle believe?
-That everything we know to be true must first come from the senses (that everything comes from our surroundings)
-Takes the nurture side in the nature vs. nurture argument
What two emerging schools of thought cemented psychology as a formal discipline?
Structuralism and Functionalism
Who came up with structuralism?
Wilhelm Wundt
What two main ideas did structuralism include?
-Structuralism emphasized introspection also known as looking inward and examining or attempting to understand our own conscious experiences through examining our own thoughts
-understand structure and characteristics of the mind on a philosophical level (figure out the way the mind works)
Overall: emphasize introspection and a philosophical examination of how the brain worked on a structural level
Who came up with functionalism?
William James
What is functionalism?
Trying to figure out why certain behaviors exist and what adaptive function do they serve
What did psychoanalytic (Freudian) theorists believe?
That every aspect of our personality and all of our behaviors are attributable to unconscious drives that stem from unresolved sexual conflicts during childhood
What psychological school of thought arose in response to psychoanalytics?
Behaviorists
What do behaviorists believe?
-that the only way to make psychology an objective science is to only study observable behaviors
-they did not think psychoanalytic (freudian) theorists were scientific
What do humanistic psychologists believe and how were their beliefs formed in response to psychoanalytic (freudian) theory that was fairly dark?
-how do we become our best selves
-since freudian theorists were so dark they wanted to focus on the brighter aspects of human nature
What do cognitive psychologists study and how do they ideologically respond to behaviorists?
-mental states
-believe that the study of non observable behaviors such as thoughts and feelings can be scientific
What are psychology’s two big questions?
- Why are people the way that they are?
- Why do people do the things that they do?
In response to the question “why do people do the things that they do” what, for a long time, was psychology’s two big and mutually exclusive answers to this question?
Nature and Nurture
What is Nature?
the belief that individual differences are due to innate, intrinsic, immutable qualities (born with them)
What is Nurture?
-the belief that individual differences are due to differences in experience throughout our lives
-an example of this is John Locke’s belief that we are all born as blank slates or Tabula Rasa
Psychology now acknowledges that nature and nurture have what type of effect on each other?
-that they have bidirectional effects on each other
-aka nature can influence nurture and nurture can also influence nature
What is meant by the belief that “nurture works on what nature endows”?
-nature is seen that is set and nurture adds on top of that (aka nature can affect nurture but nurture cannot affect nature)
-this was a previously held view and now not as believed
What is epigenetics?
-the study of how our life experiences can change our genetic makeup and then that changed makeup can be passed on to future
-meaning it is an prime example of how nurture can affect nature
What is cultural neuroscience?
-how the lives we lead can shape how our brains work and shows how culture can shape how we think and feel
-meaning it is a prime example of how nurture can affect nature
What is a biopsychosocial approach?
-any behavior or mental process is affected by biological, psychological, and socio-cultural influences
What are four examples of biological influences that can affect behavior or mental processes?
-natural selection of adaptive traits
-genetic predispositions responding to environment
-brain mechanisms
-hormonal influences
What are four example of socio-cultural influences that can affect behavior or mental processes?
-presence of others
-cultural, societal, and family expectations
-peer and other group influences
-compelling models (such as in the media)
What are four examples of psychological influences that can affect behavior or mental processes?
-learned fears and other learned expectations
-emotional responses
-cognitive processing
-perceptual interpretations
What is basic research?
-pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
(help us know more than we knew previously)
What is applied research?
-scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
(tries to solve real world problems)
What are the six types of basic research?
-biological
-cognitive
-developmental
-personality
-positive
-social
What is basic biological research and an example of it?
-the study of brains
What deficiencies in brain structure or function contribute to autism?
What is basic cognitive research and an example of it?
-the study of thoughts and the way people think
Why do children with autism have difficulties understanding sarcasm?
What is basic developmental research and an example of it?
-the study of how do we change over time or develop
How do the stages of cognitive and emotional development differ in children with autism?
What is basic personality research and an example of it?
-the study of personality traits
Do certain personality traits need to e measured differently in autistic children.
What is basic positive research and an example of it?
-the study of how people can lead their most productive lives
How might children with autism lead their most positive and productive lives?
What is basic social research and an example of it?
-the study of social environments, situations, interactions
How do autistic children interact with other children?
What is applied clinical research and an example of it?
-study of mental illness and mental health, theses researchers undergo clinical training to treat these specific populations that have a diagnosis to them
What kind of therapeutic technique works best to reduce anxiety?
What is applied community research and an example of it?
-not only do research on social justice but also engage in grass roots social action
-ask policy questions then use answers to do it
How can a city government best organize their efforts to encourage the use of public transportation?
What is applied counseling research and an example of it?
-don’t focus on mental illness per say
-helping someone achieve career goals but do not have a mental illness
Help someone achieve career goals despite family conflict and self-doubt
What are the six types of applied research?
-clinical
-community
-counseling
-forensic
-industrial/organizational
-sports/exercise
What is applied forensic research and an example of it?
-legally themed subfield
How should lawyers question witnesses to ensure that they give reliable, truthful testimony
What is applied industrial/organizational research and an example of it?
-how can managers be the best they can be
-How can a manager improve coordination of tasks, role, and personalities, in the workplace
What is applied sports/exercise research and an example of it?
-focus on improving performance for athletes and promote their wellbeing
What kind of mindsets help athletes perform at their best?
In regards to careers in psychology, what can you do with a bachelor’s degree?
-almost any job that requires the skills you develop in taking all of your psych classes (critical thinking, statistical reasoning/analysis, ability to critically think like a scientist etc.)
What three careers in psychology require graduate and professional training?
-college professor (whether focused on research, teaching, or a mix of both)
-professional researcher outside of a university setting
-mental health clinician (psychiatrist, clinical psychologist, clinical social worker, etc.)
What degree do you need to be a psychiatrist?
MD
What degree do you need to be a clinical psychologist?
PhD
What degree do you need to be a clinical social worker or therapist of any kind?
Masters
What is the science news cycle and why does it illustrate how important it is to be a critical consumer of science?
-starts with the original research, then the university PR office releases a statement on it, which is then picked up by news wire organizations, which is then read bu the internet, and then it ends up on cable news, and then it ends up on local news, and then the general population gets it
-each point picks up on the inaccuracies from the previous point and adds to it
How do you identify misinformation in scientific news or information?
-look at who is talking and think about what does this person stand to gain if I believe what is being said
-evaluate the wording of the claim or argument since certain works might be used to evoke certain feelings or connotations
-wording or framing effects
-make sure you can fact check all the way back to the original source
What are the three reasons we need psychological science?
-to empirically confirm or deny what we simply believe to be true
-can’t rely on intuition or common sense to verify psychology
-importance of critical thinking which is thinking that does not hastily accept arguments and conclusions and question what you know
Can lab experiments really tell us about everyday life?
-yes to a certain extent however doing studies in a controlled lab environment does not emulate the real world
-the lab just tests theoretical principles that underlie outcomes and explain those outcomes
-keep in mind the purpose of the study and who the study is conducted on
Often times behavioral science research has WEIRD subjects 96% of the time even though this population only makes up 12% of the world population, what does the acronym stand for?
Western
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic
Why do psychologists study animals?
-according to ethicists some have said that researchers can do certain things to animals that they can’t do to humans
-they must follow ethical guidelines and limit and do no harm
How much pain is ethically acceptable for animals to endure for science?
-what benefits can come from the research
-need to do a cost/benefit analysis
What ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants?
-stricter guideline for humans than animals
-human ethical guidelines come from dark previous studies where harm resulted upon the human participants
Do values influence psychological research?
-to certain extents values can influence psychological research since in order to believe that a certain topic of research is worth doing people must have an opinion about what is being researched
-i.e. how to mitigate racial prejudice (must already have value that racism is bad)
How well can you tell from fact and opinion statements?
-the result from a study is a fact
-a value judgement is an opinion
-scientists mistakenly represent their opinions as facts
What are facts?
-can be derived from data, can be disproven or proven
What are opinions?
-belief about what we should do about data or a finding (i.e. the implications of the finding or data)
What are the five steps of the scientific method?
- ask a question
- do background research
- formulate a hypothesis (and operationally define your variables)
- test the hypothesis by collecting data
- analyze the data and draw conclusions
- report your findings
Why are ethics in research important?
-need to make sure your plan has been approved by university offices
-anyone conducting research must gain ethics approval before collecting data from human or animals participants
What is the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
-reviews and approves research proposals involving human subjects
-participants must grant informed consent be made aware of their right and be fully debriefed if the study involved deception
What is the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)?
-reviews and approves research proposals involving animal subjects
-animals’ pain/distress must be minimized as much as possible
What are some widespread myths that are not true and can empirically disproven using the scientific method?
-sugar makes kids hyper
-we only use 10% of our brains
-we’re more likely to be attracted to people who are radically different from us
-lie detectors can accurately tell the truth from lies
-making infants listen to Mozart will make them smarter later in life
What are the three different methods for testing hypotheses?
-descriptive methods
-quasi-experimental methods
-experimental methods
What are the three examples of descriptive methods and what are they?
-case studies
-naturalistic observations
-surveys
-observing and describing what you are seeing
What is a case study, where is it often used, why is it valuable (pro), and what is a con of it?
-describes one person in a great deal of detail
-often used in neurology
-pro: provides an existence of proof that could inspire future research
-con: not generalizable, cannot draw broad generalizations
What is a naturalistic observation, how is the data collected, and what is unique about the data collection?
-observing multiple people or animals in a natural setting without trying to manipulate or intervene the situation
-pen and paper data collection, smartphone apps, body-worn sensors, social media data mining
-the data collection is happening in real time
What is a survey, what is a pro, what is a con?
-used to ascertain the attitudes or behaviors of a certain group
-pro: easy to conduct (online)
-cons: self report bias, wording (framing) effects
What are two issues with descriptive methods?
-cannot explain behavior (can only describe the behavior observed cannot explain the reasoning why)
-prone to sampling bias (can only get a non representative pool of the population)
How can sampling bias in descriptive methods be alleviated?
-through random sampling (every individual has an equal opportunity to be in the sample)
What are Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Methods?
-detect relationships and patterns between variables and predict outcomes
-just shows correlation and not causation
How do Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Methods differ from purely experimental methods?
-they can’t determine the causality
What is the correlation coefficient (r)?
-describes the tendency of two variables to vary together and can range from -1.00 to +1.00
What do the sign and magnitude of the correlation coefficient represent?
sign: direction of relationship
magnitude: strength of the relationship
What is correlation and how does it differ from causation?
-tells you that two variables are related to each other (as opposed to unrelated)
-correlation might hint at the possibility of a causal relationship but cannot definitively prove that one variable caused another
Over what range of time can Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Methods be conducted?
at one time or over time
What is longitudinal research (Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Method) ?
-collects data from the same people ate multiple different time points
-follows the same people over time
What is cross-sectional research (Quasi-Experimental (Correlational) Method)?
-collects data from multiple different age groups (cohorts) at the same time
What two factors do experimental methods include?
-variable manipulation
-random assignment
In regards to variable manipulation in an experimental method, what are the two types of variables and what do they do?
Independent variable - being manipulated
Dependent variable - being measured
In regards to random assignment in an experimental method, what are the two types of groups and what do they do?
Control Group - doesn’t receive treatment/ manipulation
Experimental Group - exposed to one version of the independent variable
In experimental methods, what is a double-blind procedure?
-ensures that both research participants and staff are unaware which group receives which treatment
In experimental methods, what is the placebo effect?
-results caused by expectations of a false treatment rather than the treatment itself
What is the basic purpose of descriptive, quasi-experimental, and experimental methods?
descriptive - observe and record behavior
quasi-experimental - detect naturally occurring relationships
experimental - explore potential cause and effect relationships
How are descriptive, quasi-experimental, and experimental methods conducted?
descriptive - case studies, naturalistic observations, surveys
quasi-experimental - collect data on two or more variables
experimental - manipulate one or more factors, use random assignment
What’s manipulated in descriptive, quasi-experimental, and experimental methods?
descriptive - nothing
quasi-experimental - nothing
experimental - independent variables
What weaknesses are in descriptive, quasi-experimental, and experimental methods?
descriptive - no control over variables, single cases may be misleading
quasi-experimental - can’t provide information about causation
experimental - sometimes not feasible or ethical may not be generalizable
In statistically based research findings are typically what and what does that mean?
-statistically significant
-how you know you can trust your results
-does not say anything about the practical importance of your research
What is reliability?
-the consistency and stability of a test measure
-aka would you get the same results with different subjects, at a different time, with different but comparable forms of the test
What is validity?
-the extent to which a test actually measures what it purports to measure
-how close it is to the original value
You can have reliable and valid, reliable and not valid, and neither reliable nor valid findings, but what can you not have?
Valid, but not reliable
