Unit Two Flashcards
Defn. anecdotal evidence
Personal stories about specific incidents and experiences
Defn. between-subject design
a study in which individuals are assigned to only one treatment or experimental condition and each person provides only one score for data analysis. For example, in a between-subjects design investigating the efficacy of three different drugs for treating depression, one group of depressed individuals would receive one of the drugs, a different group would receive another one of the drugs, and yet another group would receive the remaining drug. Thus, the researcher is comparing the effect each medication has on a different set of people. Also called between-groups design; independent-groups design
Defn. case study
An in-depth investigation of an individual subject.
Defn. confounding of variables
A condition that exists whenever two variables are linked together in a way that makes it difficult to sort out their independent effects.
Defn. control group
Subjects in a study who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group
Defn. correlation
The extent to which two variables are related to each other
Defn. correlation coefficient
A numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables.
Defn. data collection techniques
Procedures for making empirical observations and measurements
Defn. deception
any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others. For example, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant has engaged in deception.
Defn. dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable
Defn. descriptive statistics
Statistics that are used to organize and summarize data
Defn. double-blind procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups
Defn. experiment
A research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second variable as a result.
Defn. experimental group
The subjects in a study who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
Defn. experimenter bias
A phenomenon that occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
Defn. extraneous variables
Any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
Defn. hypothesis
A systematic procedure that typically produces a heightened state of suggestibility
Defn. independent variable
the variable in an experiment that is specifically manipulated or is observed to occur before the dependent, or outcome, variable, in order to assess its effect or influence. Independent variables may or may not be causally related to the dependent variable. In statistical analyses—such as path analysis, regression analysis, and structural equation modeling—an independent variable is likely to be referred to as a causal variable, explanatory variable, or predictor variable. See also exogenous variable; treatment.
Defn. inferential statistics
Statistics that are used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
Defn. interaction
a relationship between two or more systems, people, or groups that results in mutual or reciprocal influence
Defn. journal
A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.
Defn. mean
The arithmetic average of the scores in a distribution
Defn. median
The score that falls exactly in the centre of a distribution of scores
Defn. mode
The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution
Defn. naturalistic observation
A descriptive research method in which the researcher engages in careful, usually prolonged, observation of behaviour without intervening directly with the subjects.
Defn. negative correlation
a relationship between two variables in which the value of one variable increases as the value of the other decreases. For example, in a study about babies crying and being held, the discovery that those who are held more tend to cry less is a negative correlation.
Defn. operational definition
a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured. For example, the operational definition of anxiety could be in terms of a test score, withdrawal from a situation, or activation of the sympathetic nervous system
Defn. operational definition
a description of something in terms of the operations (procedures, actions, or processes) by which it could be observed and measured. For example, the operational definition of anxiety could be in terms of a test score, withdrawal from a situation, or activation of the sympathetic nervous system
Defn. participants
The persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study
Defn. placebo
any medical or psychological intervention or treatment that is believed to be “inert,” thus making it valuable as a control condition against which to compare the intervention or treatment of interest
Defn. placebo effects
The fact that subjects’ expectations can lead them to experience some change even though they receive an empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment
Defn. population
The larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn and that researchers want to generalize about
Defn. positive correlation
a relationship between two variables in which both rise and fall together. For example, one would expect to find a positive correlation between study hours and test performance. Also called direct correlation. Compare negative correlation.
Defn. random assignment
The constitution of groups in a study such that all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition
Defn. random sampling
a process for selecting a sample of study participants from a larger potential group of eligible individuals, such that each person has the same fixed probability of being included in the sample and some chance procedure is used to determine who specifically is chosen. A group selected in this way is known as a random sample. The main value of this form of probability sampling is its positive impact on generalizability and external validity.
Defn. replication
The repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated.
Defn. response set
A tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the questions.
Defn. sample
The collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study
Defn. sampling bias
A problem that occurs when a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn.
Defn. social desirability bias
A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself
Defn. standard deviation
An index of the amount of variability in a set of data.
Defn. statistical significance
The condition that exists when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low
Defn. statistics
The use of mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data
Defn. surveys
A descriptive research method in which researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of subjects’ behaviour.
Defn. theory
A system of interrelated ideas that is used to explain a set of observations
Defn. variability
The extent to which the scores in a data set tend to vary from each other and from the mean
Defn. variables
Any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study
Defn. within-subject designs
an experimental design in which the effects of treatments are seen through the comparison of scores of the same participant observed under all the treatment conditions. For example, teachers may want to give a pre- and postcourse survey of skills and attitudes to gauge how much both changed as a result of the course. Such a design could be analyzed with a dependent-samples t test, a within-subjects analysis of variance, or an analysis of covariance.
