unit one - psychology's history and approaches Flashcards
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
critical thinking
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge
empiricism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
structuralism
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
introspection
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
functionalism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
behaviorism
a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
humanistic psychology
the study of mental processes, such as when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.
cognitive psychology
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
cognitive neuroscience
the science of behavior and mental processes.
psychology
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
nature-nurture issue
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
natural selection
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
evolutionary psychology
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
behavior psychology
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
culture
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
positive psychology
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.
biopsychosocial psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes.
biological psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking.
socio-cultural psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
psychodynamic psychology
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
testing effect
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
SQ3R
the scientific study focusing on the techniques of measurement concerning human abilities, attitudes, and traits.
psychometrics
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
basic research
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.
developmental psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
educational psychology
the study of individuals’ patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting.
personality psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
social psychology
a scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
applied research
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
industrial-organizational psychology
a field of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
clinical psychology
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who are licensed to provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
psychiatry
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
community psychology
numerical data used to measure and describe the characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
descriptive statistics
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
histogram
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.
mode
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.
mean
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.
median
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.
skewed distribution
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
range
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.
standard deviation
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data
normal curve
numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.
inferential studies
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
statistical significance
first female president of the APA; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)
Mary Whiton Calkins
the grandfather of evolutionary psychology, discovered natural selection
Charles Darwin
advocate for the mentally ill who revolutionarily reformed the way mentally ill patients are treated
Dorothea Dix
austrian neurologist known for his work on the unconscious mind. Father of psychoanalysis.
Sigmund Freud
launched the American Journal of Psychology, and served as the American Psychological Association’s first president (1892)
G. Stanley Hall
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; third president of APA
William James
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
Ivan Pavlov
Known for his theory on the 4 stages of cognitive development in children
Jean Piaget
a humanist, he emphasized the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth; founded person-centered therapy
Carl Rogers
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
B.F. Skinner
first woman to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 13th president of the APA (1921)
Margaret Floy Washburn
founder of behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study
John B. Watson
german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879
Wilhelm Wundt
an organized whole. emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
gestalt psychology
perspective developed by freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware
psychoanalytic perspective
psychological perspective that analyzes how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
psychodynamic perspective
study of how cultural and political experiences affect our life
sociocultural psychology
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)
hindsight bias
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
theory
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
hypothesis
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study.
operational definition
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.
replication
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
case study
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
survey
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
sampling bias
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
population
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
random sample
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
dependent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
independent variable
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
informed consent
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.
debriefing
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experiment
a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other
correlational study
the most popular technique for gathering primary data, in which a researcher interacts with people to obtain facts, opinions, and attitudes
survey research
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
naturalistic observations
a research method that involves the intensive examination of unusual people or organizations
case study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
longitudinal study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
cross-sectional study
an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment
double-blind experiment
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sampling
a descriptive statistic that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables
correlational coefficient
organization that reviews research in advance to ensure ethical considerations are met
IRB
charged with reviewing animal research procedures and ensuring that all regulations are adhered to
IACUC
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
overconfidence
a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable
confounding variable
