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MicroBio > Unit Objective 2 > Flashcards

Unit Objective 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the process of fermentation

A

Releases energy from sugars or other organic molecules; Does not require oxygen; Does not use Kreb’s Cycle/ETC; Uses organic molecules as the final electron acceptor.

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2
Q

When and how much ATP is produced in fermentation

A

2 ATP are produced during the first stage (glycolysis)

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3
Q

Tell why the fermentation stage is performed? (2 functions)

A

1) Supplies NAD+ and NADP so that glycolysis can continue

2) electrons are transferred from reduced NADH and NADPH to pyruvic acid.

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4
Q

Compare and Contrast Aerobic respiration and fermentation

A

Aerobic respiration:

  • requires oxygen
  • goes through krebs/etc cycle
  • produces lots of ATP (~38)

Fermentation:

  • required no oxygen
  • does NOT go through krebs/etc
  • produces significantly less ATP (2)

Both:

  • intake pyruvic acid
  • go through glycolysis
  • ATP generating processes
  • use organic molecule as the final electron acceptor
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5
Q

Describe Lactic Acid and Ethanol fermentation.

A

Lactic Acid and Ethanol Fermentation both go through glycolysis which oxidizes 2 pyruvic acids and produces 2 ATP.

  • But Lactic acid cycle reduces the 2 pyruvic acids into lactic acid in the second stage
  • While Ethanol Fermentation’s second stage reduces the pyruvic acid into acetylaldehyde (which is then further reduced to ethanol)
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6
Q

Discuess moelcules that microbes can break down as sources of energy

A

Carbohydrates
Lipids: Lipase breaks down glycerol and fatty acid into DHAP and Acetyl CoA
Proteins: Protease breaks down proteins to Amino Acids.

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7
Q

Lipase

A

Extracellular enzymes that hydrolyzes lipis to glycerols and fatty acids.

Note: The glycerol and FA are further reduced to Acetyl CoA so that it may enter the Krebs cycles.

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8
Q

Protease

A

Enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acids that can enter the cell

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9
Q

Deamination

A

Removal of amino group

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10
Q

Decarboxylation

A

removal of carboxyl group

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11
Q

Explain where each portion of a lipid is and where organic acids produced from proteins can enter into the respirator pathway to be used in energy production

A

There are 2 pathways lipids can take to enter krebs once lipase breaks the lipid into glycerol and fatty acid.

1) Gylcerol breaks down into DHAP, which breaks into GP then enter starting with *Glycolysis -> Pyruvic acid -> Acetyl CoA -> Krebs
2) FA becomes Acetyl CoA via beta oxidation and then enters krebs

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12
Q

How much ATP is generated from a glycerol molecule and explain where and how each of these ATP is made

A

1 glycerol -> 1 DHAP -> 1GP
GP is processed via glycolysis -> prepatory stage -> krebs -> ETC.

**20 ATP generated in total

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13
Q

Amphibolic Pathway

A

Pathways that funciton in anabolism and catabolism. It allows for simultaneous reactions (product of one is used to syntehsize anotehr compound)

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14
Q

How much ATP is fenerated form a fatty acid molecule and explain where and how each of these ATP is made

A

1 FA -> 1 Acetyl CoA -> Krebs.
**Different lengths in the FA tail can generate different amounts of ATP. (longer the tail, the more ATP generated)

11ATP (NADH + FADH2) + 1 ATP (Krebs) = 12 ATP total (**for each 2-C group!)

i.e. if 10-C FA, then 5 x 12 = 60

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15
Q

Examples of how molecules are synethsized by cells using krebs cycle intermediates and by using glycolytic intermediates

A

1) DHAP can be used to make glycerol (anabolic)
2) Acetyl CoA can be used to make fatty acids (anabolic)

Processes can work in either reverse order

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16
Q

How are triglyerides syntehsized?

A

1) joining of glycerol to fatty acids. (glycerol is derived from DHAP)
2) dehydration synthesis: ATP supplies energy to form glycerol, FA, and triglycerides. (or can go backwards: FA -> beta oxidation -> 2-C molecule -> Acetyl CoA -> Krebs/ETC/Chemiosmosis -> ATP)

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17
Q

Triglyceride

A

Glycerol + 3 FA groups

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18
Q

Physical Requirements for Microbial Growth (3: TOP)

A

TOP

  1. Temperature: Most mirboes group at temp’s humans life
  2. Osmotic pressure: microbes obtain most nutrients in colution from surrounding water. (isotonic is most ideal)
  3. PH: most bacteria grow best in a narrow pH range.
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19
Q

Chemical Requirements for Microbial Growth (6)

A
  1. Carbon
  2. Nitrogen: needed to syntehsize cellular material and build amino acids and nucleotides (P + sugar + base)
  3. Sulfur: “ “
  4. Trace Elements: (i.e. potassium, calcium, copper, zinc)
  5. Oxygen: aerobes generate more ATP than anaerobes
  6. Organic Growth factors.
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20
Q

Obligate

A

Absolutly requires a specific growth condition in order to survive.
i.e. obligate aerobes must have oxygen exposure just as obligate anaerobes must not have oxygen exposure

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21
Q

Facultative

A

Can survive with or without the nutrient/growth condition, BUT PREFERS OXYGEN because it can generate more ATP

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22
Q

Mesophile

A

“Moderate Loving” microbes. Most common food spoilage and disease microbe

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23
Q

Psychrophile

A

“Cold loving” mircobes. Can grow in refrigerators, found in oceans and polar regions

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24
Q

Psychotrophs

A

More common than Psychrophils.

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25
Q

Thermophiles

A

“heat loving” microbes.

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26
Q

Hypothermophiles

A

Grow in hot springs, and extreme hot conditions

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27
Q

Acidophiles

A

Tolerant of acidic pHs

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28
Q

Halophiles

A

Tolerant of HIGH salt

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29
Q

Optimum growth temperature

A

species grow best at this temp

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30
Q

Maximum growth temp

A

highest temperature a specie will grow at.

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31
Q

Minimum growth temp

A

lowest temp a specie will grow at

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32
Q

How does minimum, optimum, and maximum growth temperatures affect cell growth?

A

Above max, microbes are destroyed.
Near max, microbes struggle to grow (very slow growth)
Optimal growth: microbes undergo rapid growth
Near minimum, microbes struggle
Below min, microbes do not grow significantly

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33
Q

Oxygen requirement for Obligate aerobe

A

100% requires oxygen in order to survive. Growth occurs at the surface where high concentrations of oxygen have diffused into the medium

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34
Q

Oxygen requirement for Facultative anerobes

A

Can grow with oxygen and survive without it, but prefers presence of oxygen because it can yield higher ATP. Grows best at top of tube where oxygen is present, but found throughout the tube in anaerobe environments

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35
Q

Oxygen requirement for Microaerophile

A

Requires oxygen to grow **BUT ONLY SMALL amounts of oxygen. Too much oxygen and it will die, no oxygen and it will also die. Growth occurs only where low concentration of oxygen has diffused into the medium (typically in the middle of the tube)

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36
Q

Oxygen requirement for Obligate Anaerobe

A

100% requires NO OXYGEN or will die

Growth occurs only where there is no oxygen (typically the bottom of the tube)

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37
Q

Oxygen requirement for Aerotolerant Anaerobe

A

Can tolerate both environments with or without oxygen.

Growth occurs evently through out the tube. Oxygenated environments have no effect.

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38
Q

Superoxide dismutase

A

enzyme produced by microbes growing in oxygen to neutralize O2.

Conerts O2- to O2 and H2O2

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39
Q

Catalase

A

Enzyme produced by microbes to neutralize peroxides

2H2O2 -> 2H2O2 + O2

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40
Q

Peroxidase

A

Enzyme that neutralized hydrogen peroxide

2H2O2 + 2H+ -> 2H2O

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41
Q

Why are obligate anaerobes sensitive to oxygen?

A

Obligate anaerobes lack enzymes to neutralize harmful forms of oxygen; it thus cannot tolerate oxygen at all.

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42
Q

Capnophile

A

Bacteria that grow better at high concentrations of CO2.

Low O2/High CO2 found in intestinal tract and other body tissues

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43
Q

Example of a bacterium that has never been grown in lab media

A

Mycobacterim leprae are grown in armadilos.

44
Q

Binary fission

A

process by which bacteria reproduce

45
Q

Gneration time

A

time required for a cell to divide (population to double)

46
Q

Calculate teh number of cells that will exist after a specific period of time if given the generation time of a bacterium

A

if 1 cell, then 2^0 = 1,

if 2 cells, then 2^1 = 2

47
Q

Microbial growth curve

A

shows the growth of bacteria culture over time

48
Q

4 phase of microbial growth

A
  1. lag phase
  2. log phase
  3. stationary phase
  4. death phase
49
Q

Lag phage

A

intense activity preparing for population growth but no increase in population

littl eor no cell division. Little change in cell numbers; a lot of metabolic activity

50
Q

Log phase

A

logarithmic increase in population.

exponential growth occurs; cellular reproduction is most active; most metabolically active

51
Q

stationary phase

A

period of equillibrium; microbial deaths balance population of new cells.

no increase or decrease in graph
exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of waste, pH changes
Metabolic activities slow,
exponential growth stops
new cells = death
52
Q

death phase

A

population is decreasing at a logarithmic rate.

Number of deaths exceeds number of new cells formed.

53
Q

Sterilization

A

removal or destruction of all forms of microbes

54
Q

Commercial sterilization

A

enough heat to destroy spores of Clostridium botulinum

55
Q

Disinfection

A

directed at controlling harmful effects of microbes

(disinfectants

56
Q

Antisepsis

A

disinfection of living tissues
Anti = none
sepsis = bacteiral contamination in present.

57
Q

Degerming

A

mostly mechanical removal of microbes in a limited area

58
Q

Sanitation

A

lower microbial counts to safe levels.

59
Q

Asepsis

A

Absence of significant contamination
sepsis = bacerial contamination is present
Aseptic = free of pathogens.

60
Q

chemical that is “-cidal” means

A

treatment that kills microbes

-cidal like suicidal

61
Q

cheimcal that is “-static” means

A

treatment that inhibits growth and multiplication
*Inhibits growth
If agent is removed, grwoth may resume

62
Q

Factors that influence how effective an antimicrobial treatment is on microbes

A 
TEAM
Time of exposure
Environmental influences
Amount of Microbes
Microbial characteristics
63
Q

2 actions of microbial growth control agents that result in cell death

A
  1. alteration of membrane permeability. Damage to plasma membrane interferes with cell growth
  2. Damage to proteins and nucleic acids. Bonds can be broken by heat and chemicals, damaging enzymes which stops cell activities
64
Q

Examples of physical methods of microbial growth

A 
heat and moist heating
filtration
low temperatures
high pressure
radiation
65
Q

Examples of chemical methods of microbial growth

A 
phenols an dphenolics
bisphenols
biguanides
halogens
alcohols
anitbiotics
peroxygens and other forms of oxygens
66
Q

Methods for heat/moist heat

A

boiling, autoclaving, flaming, pasteurization

67
Q

methods for low temperature methods

A

refrigeration, deep freezing, lyophilization (dehydration at cold temps)

68
Q

methods for Ionization radiation

A

x rays, gamma rays, electrons

69
Q

methods for nonionization radiation

A

UV light, lower energy

70
Q

phenols and phenolics

A

chemical method; damage plasma membrane and denature enzymes

71
Q

bisphenols

A

chemical method effective against gram negatives

72
Q

biguanides

A

chemical method; disrupts plasma membranes

73
Q

Halogens

A

alters membranes; stops protein synthesis; chemical method

74
Q

alcohols

A

disrupts membranes, denatures proteins, chemical method

75
Q

peroxygens

A

chemical method; damages cell moelcules

76
Q

heavy metals

A

chemical method; denatures proteins

77
Q

What is the difference between antibiotics and other chemical methods of microbial control?

A

Antibiotics can be ingested and injected

Antibiotics can be used to TREAT diseases

78
Q

Factors that determine the resistance of microbes to a chemical control agent

A
  1. Biocides are more affective against some microbes than others
  2. Characteristics of microbes that determine their resistance.

i.e. prions, endospores, mycobacteria

79
Q

Obligate intracellular parasite

A

requires living in a host cell in order to multiply. Cant grow anywhere except in a living cell.

80
Q

Bacteriophage

A

virus that infects bacteria; a model system because its not ethical to infect people with viruses so we infect bacteria.

81
Q

Host range

A

range of host cells a virus can infect. Most infect one or a few cell types in a single host species.

i.e. the reason why your dog’s sickness wont affect you.

82
Q

4 Distinctive characteristics of viruses

A
  1. Viruses have a single type of nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA), unlike every other organism in the world
  2. They have a protein coat that surrounds the nucleic acid.
  3. Multiplies inside a living cell using the host cell’s machinery (flu virus only has 8 genes and uses our body to function)
  4. Syntehsizes structures that can transfer viral nucleic acid to other cells.
83
Q

What determines the host range of a virus?

A

The specific viral atachement sites on a host cell. No attachment site, then not way for virus to multiply!

84
Q

Viron

A

Complete infectious viral particle. All viruses are composed of a single nucleic acid (DNA OR RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.

85
Q

Capsid

A

Protein coat that protects teh nucleic acid

86
Q

Capsomere

A

Subunits of protein coat.

87
Q

Envelope

A

Lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates; Only SOME viruses have an envelope.

88
Q

General Characteristic of a virus

A

all virus are composed of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protective protein coat (capsid–which is made up of capsomeres)

Nucleic acid = DNA OR RNA
ss or ds
linear or circular

89
Q

2 ways an enveloped virus can acquire its envelope

A
  1. In the host cells during release

2. Virus encodes it

90
Q

Tell the make up and function of spikes

A

Envelope may be covered with spikes–glycoprotein complexes.

Spike proteins are produced by the virus
They are part of the envelope (NOT capsid)
Used for attachment and identification of some viruses

91
Q

How do some viruses escape the host’s immune system? (2 ways)

A
  1. Virus alters the surface proteins that antibodies would typically recognize.
  2. Virus coasted in host cell membrane (not foreign to the immune system)
92
Q

3 morphological types of viruses based on their capsid structure

A

Viruses are classified into morphological types based on capsid structure.

  1. helical virus: long rods (ebola)
  2. polyhedral viruses: many sided (poli virus)
  3. complex viruses: complicated structures (poxviruses)
93
Q

What characteristsics are used to classify viruses into families?

A

nuclic acid type
strategy for replication
morphology

94
Q

lysogeny

A

phage remains latent (inactive) in the cell

95
Q

prophage

A

phage DNA inserted in bacterial chromosome

96
Q

Specialized transduction

A

lysogenic phage packages bacterial DNA along with its own into a capsid
**Only DNA directly adjacent to the phage can be transferred

97
Q

Give the 2 mehcanisms used by phages to multiply

A
  1. lytic pathways: ends in the host cell lysis/destruction
    - -lambda phage has a lytic cycle.
  2. Lysogenic pathway: host cell remains alive and gets passed along to the next generation
98
Q

Compage and contrast the lytic and lysogenic pathways of phages.

A
  1. Lytic pathway: viral functions are fully expressed and leads to the destruction of teh host cell and release of replicated virus particles
  2. Lysogenic: Viral funcitons are latent and phage DNA is integrated into teh host genome and can be replicated together with the host DNA (potential to be carried down along generations)

BOTH: ways viruses attach to the host cell

99
Q

5 stages of the lytic cycle

A
  1. viruses attach to the host cell
  2. phage penetrates the host cell and injects its DNA
  3. Biosynthesis: Phage DNA directs synthesis of viral components byt he host cell
  4. Viral components are assembled into virions are mature.
  5. Host cell lyses and new virons are released.
100
Q

3 important results of lysogeny

A
  1. lysogenic cells immune to re-inection by teh same type of phage
  2. Phage conversion: host cell has new properties
  3. Makes specialized transduction possible.
101
Q

Give the processes of multiplication of animal viruses that are shared by both DNA and RNA viruses (5)

A
  1. Attachement: between virus and recepto sites on host cell surfaces.
  2. Entry
  3. Uncoating: separating of viral nucleic acid from its protein coat by enzymes
  4. Biosyntehsis: genetic info copies in nucleus (DNA viruses)
  5. Release
102
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Engulfment by cells into a vesicle. “pino” = hungry/thirty, “cytosis” movement into

103
Q

Fusion

A

viral envelop fuses with plasma membrane; releases capsid into cell.

104
Q

Compare and contrast bacteriophages and animal viruses

A

Bacteriophages: tall fibers attach to cell wall proteins, DNA injects into the host cell, biosyntehsis occurs in cytoplasm, uncoating is not req, relases via lysis

Animal Viruses: entry via endocytosis or fusion, uncoating occurs, biosyntehsis occurs in the nuclues, chronic infection is latent

BOTH: relases via cell lysis.

105
Q

Example of DNA virus

A

Adenoviridae: Mastadenovirus, causes the common cold

106
Q

Example of RNA virus

A

Retroviridae, HIV

MicroBio (4 decks)

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