Unit C Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Policy:
A
A proposed plan of action for how to deal with certain situations.
2
Q
Domestic policy:
A
Guides decisions about what to do within the country.
3
Q
Foreign policy:
A
Guides decisions about official relations with other countries
4
Q
Who were the central powers in WWI?
A
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
5
Q
Who were the allied powers in WWI?
A
France, Britain, Russia, Italy and Japan.
6
Q
Because of WWI, ________ of people died and the financial costs were in the hundreds of ________.
A
millions, billions
7
Q
The First World War was fought in…
A
Europe, Asia and the Middle East
8
Q
The causes of the First World War can be summarized by the acronym MAIN:
A
Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.
9
Q
Militarism:
A
The practice of maintaining a large military, including army, navy and air force. Ultranationalists tend to favour military preparedness for expansion of the nation or defence against external enemies.
10
Q
Militarism includes the practice of…
A
building stockpiles of weapons.
11
Q
When nations compete to build up their military and weapons reserve, this is called an “____ ____”.
A
arms race
12
Q
Examples of new weapons introduced in WWI include:
A
Poison gas (mustard gas), hand grenades, flame throwers, machine guns, airplanes, tanks, and submarines.
13
Q
_______ and _______ were competing in a naval arms race prior to the First World War.
A
Britain, Germany
14
Q
When Britain and Germany started competing to build naval arms, what happened to other nations?
A
Fear of the other nations growing navy fueled the desire to build their own navy. As a result, Germany, France, Russia and Britain all increased their military spending prior to First World War.
15
Q
The increase in militarism prior to the First World War was caused by:
A
Many European countries had colonies all over the world and needed large militaries to control them. Countries such as Germany felt vulnerable when nearby countries like Britain had larger militaries than they did. An increase in nationalism in many countries inspired governments to increase the size of their militaries to demonstrate the greatness of their nation.
16
Q
Alliance:
A
An alliance is when a group of people, organizations or countries join together to support one another to achieve a common purpose.
17
Q
Why did many countries form alliances prior to WWI?
A
Many countries started to form military alliances as the fear of militarism and foreign threats grew.
18
Q
What was the effect of alliances between countries when viewed by other nations?
A
The formation of alliances led to distrust and hostility between certain nations.
19
Q
Were Spain and Switzerland involved in WWI? If so, how?
A
No, they were not.
20
Q
The Triple Alliance:
A
In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy created an alliance called the Triple Alliance.
21
Q
What happened to the Triple Alliance once WWI began?
A
In the First World War, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria joined them and they became the Central Powers. Italy had a secret deal with France and dropped out of the Triple Alliance when the war started.
22
Q
Triple Entente:
A
In 1907, France, Britain and Russia joined to unite against Germany in an alliance called the Triple Entente.
23
Q
What happened to the Triple Entente once WWI began?
A
In the First World War, Japan, USA and Italy joined and they became the Allied Powers. Russia dropped out in 1917 after the revolution in their country.
24
Q
Balance of Power:
A
Balance of power refers to the formation of alliances so one group of nations could not become more powerful than another group. The buildup of military and alliances was seen as a way to prevent war. Peace would be kept because the two main groups of allies would be deterred from acting against each other.
25
Imperialism:
Imperialism was the policy and practice of controlling a series of colonies all over the world. European competition over control of their colonies is seen as one of the causes of the First World War.
26
Give two examples of imperialism in the First World War:
Great Britain resented Germany’s acquisition of East Africa because it blocked plans for a Cape-to-Cairo railway. Germany tried to prevent the establishment of a French protectorate in Morocco.
27
The Balkans were referred to as the “powder keg of Europe” because...
the political climate was very volatile.
28
What happened in 1912 with the Balkan Crisis?
In 1912, Serbia, backed by Russia, attacked Turkey and gained independence and access to the sea. Austria countered by establishing the country of Albania to block Serbia’s outlet to the sea. As a result, Russia and Serbia were drawn closer in opposition to Austria.
29
What did nationalism do to many countries?
Nationalism and the pursuit of national interests led many countries to attempt to expand their borders in order to incorporate members of their nation living in other countries. Also, nations within countries began fighting for independence.
30
What to do with nationalism happened to Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire?
Ethnic groups in Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire struggled for independence.
31
What to do with nationalism happened to France and Germany?
Tension between France and Germany (France lost Alsace-Lorraine regions in the Franco-Prussian war in 1871) grew over borders.
32
What to do with nationalism happened to Italy and Austria-Hungary?
Italy wanted ethnic Italian areas in Austria-Hungary to be reunited with Italy.
33
The Empire of Austria-Hungary was formed by the combination of several distinct nations:
Austrian Empire, the kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
34
The Empire of Austria-Hungary:
These nations shared some organization together, however, they remained mostly independent from each other.
35
Archduke Ferdinand:
Prior to World War I Archduke Franz Ferdinand was next in line to rule Austria-Hungary. In 1914, while visiting the city of Sarajevo in Bosnia, Archduke Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by Gavrilo Princip. Princip was a member of the “Black Hand”, a secret military society that wanted to unify all territories with a Slavic majority.
36
What event is considered to have started WW1?
The assassination of Archduke Ferdinand is considered to be the event that started the First World War.
37
How was WWI declared?
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia mobilized the next day to support Serbia. Germany declared war on Russia as a result.
38
How did nations react to the beginning of WWI?
France wanted revenge for previous defeats and wanted to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine so they agreed to support Russia. Germany then declared war on France. Britain eventually declared war on Germany.
39
The First World War came to an end in ____.
1918
40
Who won in the First World War?
The Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire) were defeated by the Allied Powers (Britain, France, USA, Italy, Japan).
41
In the years leading up to the end of the war and the years that followed, the Allied Powers negotiated agreements and treaties to establish peace. What was the bias?
The negotiations were in the interest of the allied powers.
42
Where was destruction focused in World War One?
Several of the Allied Powers, especially France, experienced widespread destruction and loss of life during the war.
43
The Treaty of Versailles:
The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty that ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on June 28, 1919. The other Central Powers each signed separate peace treaties. The Treaty of Versailles contained provisions that were meant to punish Germany and prevent the nation from becoming aggressive in the future.
44
What were the issues with the Treaty of Versailles?
Germany was not involved in the negotiation of the treaty. The Allies all had separate national interests and had different ideas for what should be done with Germany. The United States was mainly interested in a strong global economy and did not favour punishing Germany economically. France and Britain were interested in punishing Germany for the damage it caused during the war. Ultimately, the national interests of Britain and France had the most impact on the Treaty of Versailles.
45
What was the war guilt clause in the Treaty of Versailles?
Clause 231 of the treaty stated Germany must accept the blame for causing all the loss and damage of the war. Many Germans saw this clause as unfair because the citizens of Germany felt they should not be held responsible.
46
Reparations from the Treaty of Versailles
Germany had to pay for all the damage of the war in installments. These payments were called reparations. To make these payments, the German government printed extra money, which created a condition of hyperinflation. Extreme economic hardship resulted in Germany.
47
How did the Treaty of Versailles limit German armed forces?
Only 100,000 men were allowed in the army. Soldiers had to be volunteers as conscription was banned. No submarines or aeroplanes were allowed. Only six battleships could be made. The Rhineland region had to be demilitarized.
48
How did the Treaty of Versailles limit German territories?
Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. The Saar coal fields were given to France for 15 years. Malmedy was given to Belgium. North Schleswig was given to Denmark (after a plebiscite). West Prussia (including the Polish corridor) and Upper Silesia were given to Poland. Memel was given to Lithuania. German colonies were made ‘mandates’ of the League of Nations.
49
Weimar Republic:
The Allies established a new government in Germany in 1919 called the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Republic had to follow all of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The result was prolonged economic hardships that would have lasting social and political implications for Germany.
50
Wilson’s Fourteen Points:
The President of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, gave a speech to the American Congress in January of 1918. The speech included fourteen points that Wilson believed would establish international peace and stability. Wilson was pursuing the main national interest of the United States, which was the establishment of a strong international economy. He wanted to create stable conditions that would lead to more trade between nations. Wilson’s Fourteen Points were not universally adopted, but they had an impact on international affairs.
51
The League of Nations:
The League of Nations was the world’s first international organization with the goal of preventing wars through collective security. The League of Nations was created as part of the Treaty of Versailles. The League of Nations attempted to facilitate countries working together to solve many international issues. Each of the 58 member countries had its own national interests that they were pursuing.
Often, the pursuit of their own national interests prevented countries from joining collective efforts to prevent conflict.
52
Detail Arab Nationalism:
Arabs in the Ottoman Empire faced oppressive and discriminatory treatment from the ruling Turkish government. Arab ethnic nationalism was growing and many Arabs desired self-determination. The Arabs supported and fought with the Allies against Germany and the Ottoman Empire during WWI. The allies promised the Arabs an independent nation-state after the war in exchange for their support.
53
The Sykes-Picot Agreement:
Britain and France signed a secretive treaty in 1916 called the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This treaty divided the Ottoman Empire into countries that would be controlled by the British and French.
Promises of self-determination to the Arabs were ignored and never fulfilled.
54
How did nations begin to control the Middle East?
France granted itself control over the people and territory of Syria and Lebanon.
Britain granted itself control over the people and territory of Cyprus, Iraq and Palestine. France and Britain wanted to gain economically from the vast oil reserves in the Middle East. The British government also declared the formation of a Jewish nation-state in Palestine.
55
Why did Britain and France have so much interest in controlling in the Middle East?
They wanted the Middle East's resources and the ability to colonize.
56
How did Arab people feel about the denial of their self-determination?
They felt betrayed and angered. They no longer wanted to be allies.
57
Ultranationalism:
Ultranationalism is an extreme form of nationalism. Ultranationalists are often fanatically loyal to their own nation and hostile and racist towards other nations.
58
Some countries like ______ and the ______ ______ experienced an economic boom in the 1920s.
Canada, United States
59
Why was it called the roaring twenties?
This decade is referred to as the roaring twenties because of the increases in wealth experienced by many due to increased production, consumerism and investment in the stock market.
60
What was Germany like in the roaring twenties?
Some countries like Germany did not experience an economic boom during this period due to the conditions left after the First World War.
61
What problems in Europe occurred in the interwar period?
Many countries had their borders changed/governments changed as a result of the end of the First World War. This led to economic and political instability as these nations were also dealing with the devastating physical and social effects of the destruction caused by the First World War. For example, France had 40 government changes between 1919–1939. Many Europeans were dissatisfied with their governments. Many Europeans were suffering from poverty and hunger. A change in government may have seemed like the only way to improve conditions.
62
How did the Treaty of Versailles fail Germany?
The punishments imposed on Germany created untold economic, political, and social hardships on regular German citizens. Germany paid billions of dollars in reparations which didn't allow them to rebuild their own economy. The Weimar Republic was the name of the new government put into place by the Allied nations. Many Germans saw this government as foreign.
63
How does hyperinflation come about?
Hyperinflation occurs when the prices of goods and services rise by over 50% in a month. It begins when the government prints more money in order to pay for its spending, which it can’t afford. When too much money is being printed the prices of goods and services skyrocket and the value of the currency plummets.
64
What happened to the middle class during Germany's hyperinflation? What happened to Germany's citizens?
Money lost all of its value and most middle-class families lost all of their savings. Germans suffered psychological damage during this period as many felt shame, embarrassment and anger over their economic troubles.
65
The Great Depression:
The Great Depression saw many economies throughout the world go into a large bust. There was massive unemployment, debt, hunger and poverty. The Great Depression hit first in the U.S., but because of the size and reach of its economy, the bust spread all around the world. Countries in Europe that were already suffering economic hardships were hit even harder during this time period.
66
What four factors led to the Great Depression?
The economy lacked diversity, there was unequal wealth distribution, the banking system was unstable, and international credit and trade were threatened.
67
How did American loans to Germany contribute to worsening economic conditions?
All of the money was loaned from American banks, that couldn't be paid back.
68
What role did the stock market crash of 1929 play in the Great Depression?
The value of money crashed and people realized all their earnings could be gone in an instant and got scared.
69
Hitler emerged as a popular political figure in the early _____.
1920s
70
How did Hitler view the Treaty of Versailles?
He opposed the Treaty of Versailles and talked about restoring the German nation to greatness.
71
Coup d’etat:
The forced military take over of the government.
72
How did Hitler first attempt to overthrow the Weimar Republic? What were the repercussions?
Hitler rallied a group of supporters at a beer hall in Munich with the goal of starting a coup d’etat. The coup d’etat attempt was unsuccessful and was put down by the Weimar Republic. Hitler was sent to jail for one year where he wrote a book that would form the basis for his own brand of ultranationalism.
73
What were Hitler's ultranationalistic ideas of solving Germany's problems?
Germany would no longer recognize the Treaty of Versailles. The country would rebuild the military and reclaim lost territory. The Aryan race was superior. His ideas centred around expansionism, militarism, antisemitism, anti-communism, and strong centralized leadership.
74
Scapegoating:
Blaming other groups of people for your own problems.
75
Groups that he scapegoated and actively campaigned to remove from society were:
Jewish people, disabled people, and homosexual people.
76
In July 1921, Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party; their belief system was called ________.
Fascism
77
"Lebensraum” (living space):
This policy stated that German people needed more territory for their peoples to live and this territory would be acquired through conquest.
78
Propaganda:
Using biased and fictional information to promote and popularize a specific idea, point of view or belief.
79
Censorship:
Techniques used to suppress information or opinions that contrast with or contradict official messages.
80
Hitler's Rise to Power - 1932:
Nazi Party won the majority of seats in the election. Hitler lost the election to become president to Paul Von Hindenburg.
81
Hitler's Rise to Power - 1933:
Hindenburg appoints Hitler as the Chancellor of the German government. This position was largely an administrative role, but Hitler began expanding his own powers as his ideas became more popular. The German government building, the Reichstag, was burned down.
As a result of the fire, Hitler passed the Enabling Act. The Enabling Act gave Hitler the ability to pass any law without consent from the parliament. Through this power, Hitler banned all political parties except the Nazi Party. He also restricted personal freedom, freedom of opinion, freedom of the press, and freedom of organization and assembly.
82
Hitler's Rise to Power - June 30, 1934:
Night of the Long Knives - Hitler eliminated his remaining opposition by having all the people who still openly opposed him murdered.
83
Hitler's Rise to Power - August 2, 1934:
President Hindenburg died.
Hindenburg was one of the only remaining pieces of the government that limited his power. Hitler declared himself the Fuhrer of Germany, with unlimited power.
84
Hitler's Rise to Power - November 9, 1938:
"Night of Broken Glass" (Kristallnacht) was a massive coordinated attack against Jews. Nazi soldiers assaulted and murdered Jewish people in the streets as their homes and businesses were burned and destroyed. Over 25 000 Jewish men were taken away to concentration camps.
85
How did Hitler remilitarize Germany?
Germany’s remilitarization was ignored by the League of Nations and the international community. Germany then militarized the Rhineland, which was a piece of land taken away from Germany in the Treaty of Versailles. This action was also ignored.
86
Germany's invasion of Austria in 1938:
Germany invaded the country of Austria in 1938 and incorporated it into the nation of Germany. Again this action was ignored and Hitler was allowed to invade a foreign country without consequence.
87
Appeasement:
Giving concessions to a potential aggressor in the hopes that they stop being aggressive. Appeasement was used by several European nations in the hopes that it would prevent Hitler from causing more conflict.
88
The Munich Agreement:
In 1938 the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Neville Chamberlain, met with Hitler and agreed to allow Germany to occupy the Sudetenland in the hopes that he would stop his expansion. Hitler did not stop invading other countries like he promised and eventually triggered the start of WWII.
89
How did the status and role of women in Canada change after the wars ended and soldiers returned to Canada?
Women proved they were capable of men's jobs but the men felt intimidated and society went back to normal. The women had a taste of these jobs though, leading to the 1960s social reforms.
90
In what ways did women express nationalism during the First World War and the Second World War in Canada?
Women supported the troops and picked up their slack.
91
Minorities in the Military:
A segregated Black battalion, the No. 2 Construction Battalion, served Canada during the First World War. (Veteran’s Affairs Canada) No segregated Black battalions were created in the Second World War; however, several thousand Black Canadian men and women served, in spite of resistance they faced at recruitment centres.
92
How did people at home contribute to the war?
Canadian manufacturing and farming made supplies and contributed food crops to the war effort. Women, children and teenagers joined the labour force. Minority communities such as Indigenous and Chinese-Canadians who suffered from discrimination in Canada contributed some of the highest proportions of money to fundraising efforts.
93
How did the government fundraise for the war?
The government gave citizens a certificate or bond they could cash in for more than they paid once the war was over. Feelings of nationalism were provoked in order to convince Canadians to buy war bonds.
94
In WWI were Indigenous people conscripted?
No.
95
In WWII were Indigenous people conscripted?
In WWII, conscription included First Nations and Métis men aged 16+, however not many were conscripted as most were already serving.
96
Tommy Prince:
Tommy Prince was a First Nations soldier who served in the Canadian military in multiple wars. He is the most decorated Indigenous soldier in Canada. Despite his service, he faced discrimination in Canada as a veteran.
97
During the First World War, members of some First Nations Bands were exempt from serving in the war effort depending on the terms of their ________. Some treaties stated that members would not have to be involved in _______ conflicts.
treaties, British
98
During the Second World War, conscription of First Nations men was declared. What was the reaction of First Nations people?
Some First Nations Bands protested and petitioned the government against mandatory military service saying it was not part of their treaty terms.
99
How was Newfoundland involved in the world wars?
Newfoundland was part of the British Commonwealth at the time of the World Wars, but it was not part of the Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland served as a training stop for Canadian troops before they deployed to Hong Kong. A concrete fort with cannons was built at Cape Spear, Newfoundland to deter German raids on Newfoundland and Canada from the sea. Newfoundland contributed two units to serve in the Second World War. The financial stress of paying for their war effort contributed to Newfoundland voting to join Canada in 1949.
100
The “Other”:
Ultranationalists tend to fear or hate those who challenge their beliefs. Fear or hatred of the “other” may result in the targeting of minorities within a nation, or external forces in other nations.
101
Strong leaders:
Ultranationalist movements are often led by strong, charismatic leaders who are persuasive, inspiring or portrayed as able to get things done with efficiency. Strong leaders may also inspire fear among those who would challenge their authority and their nationalistic agenda.
102
Leaders in the Soviet Union targeted _______ ______ or ___________ ______ as the enemy. For example, the capitalist world was portrayed as the enemy of _________.
outside forces, non-Russian forces, communism
103
Under Joseph Stalin, who led the Soviet Union from 1922–1953, national interests were often aligned with the interest of...
the Communist Party or Stalin himself.
104
Soviet ideology maintained that capitalism was ________ to the socialism practiced by the Soviet Union. As a result, the Soviet Union was in competition with western nations.
inferior
105
Stalin aimed to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union with Five Year Plans and quotas which...
imposed harsh conditions on the population.
106
How was propaganda used in the Soviet Union?
Propaganda and censorship were used to justify plans and portray the Soviet Union as a success, even when many were dying from famine. History books were edited, including pictures, to conform to the government versions of events. Dissent could lead to arrest, execution or sentencing to forced labour camps.
107
The Great Terror:
The Great Terror, or Purge, began with show trials that included forced confessions and executions, demonstrating what could happen to opponents of the government. Between 1936–1938, thousands were executed and possibly millions more were sent to the “gulags” as enemies of the people.
108
How did Stalin want to expand?
The Soviet Union sought to expand its influence. For example, Stalin reached a non-aggression pact with Germany in 1939 which divided Eastern Europe into Soviet and German spheres. The agreement did not last due to Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941.
Soviet expansionism was evident after the Second World War. Stalin ensured that “satellite” nations like Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia, had Soviet-style governments responsible to the Soviet Union. Within the Soviet Union, under Stalin, terror was used to control ethnic minorities and make them conform.
109
Fascism:
Fascism is a type of government where individual interests are second to the good of the nation. Other features include a distrust of democracy or socialism, respect for traditional society and the use of military power.
Benito Mussolini, known as Il Duce, used personal charisma to rally Italians against their elected government, and became the first fascist leader in 1922.
110
Mussolini imposed a ____________ and eliminated opposition parties, free press and trade unions. Fascist supporters known as _____ ______, used intimidation and violence against citizens. Speeches and military displays appealed to ideas of a stronger Italy that would no longer be at the mercy of its enemies. The murder of a key opponent, Giacomo Matteotti, in 1924, by Mussolini supporters, illustrated links between nationalism and violence in fascist Italy.
dictatorship, Black Shirts
111
Italy's invasion of Ethiopia:
In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, a violation under the League of Nations. Italy had a small empire compared with other European nations and hoped to expand. Ethiopian emperor, Haile Selassie, travelled to Switzerland asking the League to honour its commitment to collective security. The League imposed minor sanctions, but with no results. Italy remained in Ethiopia and withdrew from the League of Nations.
112
Mussolini and Hitler:
Mussolini visited another fascist leader, Adolf Hitler, in 1937 in what was seen as a show of solidarity. In 1940, hoping to expand its territories, Mussolini and Italy entered the Second World War on the side of the Axis powers.
113
How did fascism in Italy end?
The fascist government in Italy ended during the Second World War. Mussolini was shot by opponents of Fascism. Italy has remained a democracy since the war, but nationalism and has remained part of the political scene. Alessandra Mussolini, the granddaughter of Il Duce, is prominent in Italian politics and has been elected to European Parliament.
114
Trade in Japan:
Japan supported the Allies during the First World War and, as a result, trade increased between Japan and Allied nations.
The Great Depression occurred in the 1930s and many Allied nations stopped trading with Japan. Many countries began to focus on their domestic economies and decreased trade with other nations. This was especially damaging for countries like Japan that relied heavily on foreign trade. A famine occurred in Japan in 1932.
115
The military dictatorship in Japan:
The military took control of Japan and established a military dictatorship that would eventually be led by Tojo Hideki. The military dictatorship kept the Emperor of Japan as the visible leader of the country, even though he had no real power. The Emperor was worshipped, as he was seen as being a descendant of heaven.
116
Racial superiority:
The government promoted the idea that the Japanese were a superior race and were destined to control other races.
117
Invasion:
The government invaded other countries to acquire more resources and to establish racial superiority.
118
Militarism in Japan:
Japan has a long history of contentious relationships with its neighbours. After centuries of isolation, Japan began to rapidly modernize during the Meiji Era from 1868-1912. Rapid industrialization occurred along with trade relationships with many other nations. A large military force was needed to help Japan obtain the natural resources it needed to keep its industries going and to grow crops to feed its population.
119
Alliances in Japan:
During the First World War, Japan was on the side of the Allies. Japan declared war on Germany in 1914 and seized German colonies in areas of China. During the Second World War, Japan allied with Germany.
120
Japan's Empire:
Japan’s empire included Taiwan, Korea, Manchuria and Northern China. Korea was occupied by the Japanese military in the 1890s, then annexed, occupied and declared a Japanese protectorate in 1910. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904–05 where Japan defeated Russia helped to establish Japan as major world power. Russia’s defeat was a humiliating loss which contributed to major discontent and revolution.
121
Budisho:
Fearlessness in battle, obedience to authority, protection of one’s territory, mastery of martial arts and weaponry.
122
Japan invading China:
Japan invaded the city of Shanghai in China in August of 1937. Japan invaded the capital city of Nanjing (also spelled Nanking) in December of 1937. This is known as “The Nanjing Massacre” or “The Rape of Nanjing”. Approximately 300 000 soldiers and civilians were killed. Widespread looting, rape, brutal violence against civilians and executions took place.
123
Prison Camp: Unit 731, Harbin:
Unit 731 was a prison camp in Harbin, China known for brutal and extreme experiments on humans. Research and experiments with biological and chemical warfare techniques were also conducted there. When World War II in China was coming to an end, Japanese soldiers and scientists at Unit 731 hastily disposed of chemical and biological agents. Today, people continue to be injured when they accidentally uncover buried chemicals or bacteria.
124
Forced labour in Japan:
Prisoners of war were forced to work in agriculture, railway and bridge building and in factories. Well-known corporations are known to have used forced labour from captured prisoners, including Mitsubishi, Kawasaki and Nippon Steel. Former prisoners of war have sought compensation through lawsuits, sometimes with the help of international agencies. Some companies have admitted their role in using forced labour and have accepted responsibility for their past, while others have not.
125
Invasion of Hong Kong:
Hong Kong was a British colony from 1898–1999. In December 1941, Japan invaded and took control of the colony within two weeks. The Canadian military was a significant part of the defence of Hong Kong. Many Canadian soldiers died in the defence or were taken as prisoners of war and used as forced labourers in Hong Kong, China and Japan.
126
Comfort Women:
Throughout China, Korea and the Philippines, the Japanese military established “comfort stations” where women were forced into sexual slavery. “Comfort women” were girls and women who were kidnapped or deceived into service by false job opportunities. Most comfort women were killed as the Japanese military retreated. Every Wednesday since January 8, 1992, former comfort women and their supporters have demonstrated outside the Japanese Embassy in Seoul, South Korea. The issue of an official government apology from Japan for the comfort women issue is highly contentious. Supporters say a proper apology must take place in Japan’s Diet, until that happens they will continue to pressure Japan’s government.
127
National Self-Determination:
The ability of a nation to make its own decisions. It is often associated with having sovereignty (freedom). Many nations are often in the pursuit of achieving or maintaining the power to control their own affairs.
128
True or False: Not all nations have self-determination.
True.
129
Serbia and Kosovo Self-Determination:
In 2008, a province of Serbia declared independence. The province of Kosovo saw itself as separate from Serbia and declared itself a separate nation-state from Serbia. Serbia did not want Kosovo to leave and many countries supported Serbia and did not recognize the new nation-state of Kosovo. Countries like Britain, Canada and France supported Kosovo and believed in the right of its people to pursue and achieve national self-determination. Countries like Russia and China supported the right of self-determination of Serbia and did not recognize Kosovo as a nation-state.
130
How did the independence of Kosovo affect Serbia?
Kosovo’s declaration of independence affected the boundaries of Serbia and the Serbian citizens who live in Kosovo that did not want to separate. If Kosovo remained in Serbia to satisfy their national interest, then the ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo would feel as if they have no self-determination.
131
There are two ways a successor state can be formed:
When a country gets broken up into multiple countries, the new smaller countries are the successor states.
When a nation achieves independence from within a larger country.
132
How did the Soviet Union turn into a successor state?
In 1991 the Soviet Union was dissolved and 15 successor states were created, including Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia.
133
India and Pakistan:
India was a colony of the British and fought for independence. Britain had intentionally sowed the seeds of conflict between religious groups in India during their colonial reign. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi pushed for national self-determination. However, not everyone in India wanted to stay in the nation of India.
India was eventually partitioned into two nation-states which created the successor state of Pakistan.
134
How did the independence of Pakistan affect India?
The breaking up of India led to widespread violence and deaths. It is estimated that more than a million people died and millions of people were displaced. This case demonstrates that at times the pursuit of national self-determination can have deadly consequences.
135
Decolonization:
Occurs when a colony achieves independence from a colonial power. The colony may form its own nation-state and pursue national self-determination. The country has sovereignty and the ability to make its own decisions free from colonial rule. Often conflict can occur within a decolonized nation-state. Colonial powers create division amongst groups within a colony to assert their colonial rule. When the colonial power leaves, different nations within the colony may desire national self-determination and the conflict between groups can become deadly.
136
Decolonization of Africa:
Almost every nation in Africa became independent and broke free of European imperialism between 1950 and 1970. In 1941, Britain and America met to discuss what the world would look like post-war.
They created the Atlantic Charter which stated, among many other things: All people have the right to self-determination. Many African nations used this provision of the charter to pressure European nations to allow them to become independent. European countries were devastated by WWII and after the war were heavily in debt and needed to rebuild. Many European countries could no longer afford to control their colonies. African nations quickly began achieving independence. European imperialism left many legacies that would continue to impact the pursuit of national self-determination in these countries for decades. Economies tied solely to foreign nations. Social and political divisions that had been manufactured by European nations to affirm their power. Trauma caused by oppressive colonial policies and practices.
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Decolonization in Rwanda
When Rwanda was a colony of Belgium, the Belgians intentionally created a division between two ethnic and cultural groups. The Tutsis were the minority group and were put in power by the Belgians. When Rwanda achieved independence, the majority of Hutu and the Tutsi fought for self-determination. The pursuit of national self-determination led to a genocide. The Hutu carried out genocide and killed millions of Tutsi people.
