UNIT 7 The Powers and Perils of Positive Thinking Flashcards
- What is optimism?
Optimism = generalized expectation that things will go well in the future –> GENERALIZED DISPOSITION ACROSS SEVERAL DOMAINS
- What are the benefits of optimism?
–> promotes confidence & persistence in pursuit of goals
–> do not avoid challenge4s and give up when things get tough
–> leads to better college adjustment
–> more likely to use active coping strategies (problem solving) and avoid passive coping (ignoring problems) = lower stress and greater well-being
–> predicts better mental and physical health across variety of domains (i.e. less anxiety, depression, faster recovery times, etc.)
- Describe expectancy-value theory.
a. According to this theory when is motivation likely to be the highest?
b. How does this relate to optimism?
Expectancy-value theory –> motivation is determined by two key factors:
▪ Value of the goal: Is this goal worth pursuing? i.e. are the end rewards worth it to me?
▪ Expectancy of success: Is this goal achievable? i.e. can I do this?
a) people are most motivated when they: 1) believe they can succeed (high expectancy), and 2) see the goal as meaningful or beneficial
b) Optimism boosts expectancy of success –> think they are more likely to succeed (DOES NOT mean the goals are more meaningful to them)
- How does the explanatory style of optimists differ from the explanatory style of pessimists?
Optimists –> see setbacks as temporary (unstable), limited to one area of life (specific), and due to external factors
–> stable, internal, global for positive events
Pessimists –> see setbacks as permanent (stable), affecting everything (global), and entirely their fault (internal)
–> external, specific, and unstable for positive events
- What is cognitive restructuring?
Cognitive restructuring is the beliefs you carry about the events. How you interpret events carry more importance than the weight of the events themselves.
For well-being you should restructure negative events as external, temporary and specific.
- What is self-efficacy? How does it differ from optimism?
Self-efficacy –> belief that we can bring about desired outcomes
▪ Optimism: more general (I believe that good things will happen)
▪ Self-efficacy: more specific, emphasizes sense of control (I believe that I can make good things happen)
- Why is self-efficacy important?
Self-efficacy shapes goal pursuit & determines activity choices
–> When we feel capable we seek out challenges; when we doubt ourselves, we avoid them
–> Avoidance reinforces self-doubt –> leads to less exposure to growth and a greater fear of failure
Self-efficacy promotes effort and persistence –> less likely to give up when thinks are hard
Self-efficacy affects thinking and focus under pressure
- Where does self-efficacy come from?
Personal behaviour history: “Have I succeeded at this before?”
–> More positive past experiences = more confidence in oneself
Vicarious experience: “Have I seen someone like me succeed?”
–> HAS to be one’s peers, not experts (have to be similar to oneself)
Verbal persuasion and encouragement
–> Must be realistic and believable but this will help build confidence
Interpretation of physiological state
–> are they sensitive to bodily states? If they interpret their heart rate as panic (instead of excitement) they are less likely to feel self-efficacious
- Describe stress-appraisal theory.
Appraisals of an event and our role in it shape our emotional experience of the event, and our physiological reactions to it
–> stress is what happens when the demands of the situation exceed our ability to cope
–> explains why the same event is perceived as stressful for one person but not someone else.
Perceived stress is high when the primary appraisal of the situation’s demands exceeds the secondary appraisal of your ability to meet those demands.
- Describe and distinguish between the two types of stress appraisals.
1) Primary appraisal: A person’s perception of the demands or challenges of a given situation
▪ Is the event positive, negative, or neutral? What does this mean for me?
▪ If negative, to what extent is it harmful, threatening for the future, or challenging?
2) Secondary appraisal: A person’s perception of his or her ability to deal with the demands of a given situation
▪ Are coping abilities and resources sufficient to deal with and overcome the harm, threat, or challenge posed by the event? Do I have the resources to handle this?
- What is the distinction between challenge reactivity and threat reactivity with regards to the body’s physiological response and performance?
Challenge reactivity: A cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart pumps out more blood
–> higher heat rate
–> blood vessels expands/dilate
–> more efficient circulation
–> enhanced performance
Threat reactivity: A cardiovascular pattern of response whereby the heart pumps out more blood
–> higher heart rate
–> blood vessels constrict
–> less efficient circulation
–> impaired performance
In both cases, heart rate goes up but the interpretation of it is important.
- What is learned helplessness?
Learned helplessness = state of passive resignation to an aversive situation that one has come to believe is outside of one’s control —> when we feel we lack efficacy, we give up
- Summarize Seligman’s research on learned helplessness with dogs. What did he do and what did he find?
Test phase
–> Dogs who could control the shocks later learned to escape by jumping over a barrier in a new environment
–> Dogs who had no control before often did not attempt to escape, even when escape was easy
—-> Caused by the expectation that their future actions hold no influence over their outcomes
- What is the link between controllability attributions and depression?
Controllability attributions are a strong predictor of depression
–>Depression can be thought of as a state of despair and surrender of hope. i.e. nothing I do will make a difference in what happens or how I feel
Debate about whether individuals with depression underestimate controllability of events
–>Some argue for existence of “depressive realism” (vs. illusion of control exercised by non-depressed, more optimistic individuals)
- What is hope?
Hope is more than just positive thinking or optimism –> Combines motivation and strategy to reach a goal
Two components
▪ Agency = the belief that I can do something –> the drive, determination & motivation to reach a goal
▪ Pathways thinking = belief that I can find a way to make it happen –> ability to generate different strategies and workarounds for obstacles
Hope is more than just thinking good things will happen, it is believing you can make things happen
- What are the potential drawbacks of optimism?
–> can also lead us to underestimate risks, costs, and setbacks (planning fallacy) –> bad at predicting how long something will take and the potential obstacles –> makes us less realistic
- Summarize construal level theory
a. What kind of information do we focus on when thinking about psychologically distant events? What about psychologically proximate events?
Tend to think about psychologically distant events in more abstract terms, and more psychologically proximal events in more concrete terms
–> Psychologically distant events: focus on desirability information (low level of detail and focus on benefits)
–> Psychologically proximate events: focus on feasibility information (the nitty gritty)
Easy boring assignment –> desirable now
Interesting hard assignment –> desirable later
- Describe and contrast the three ways we can think about goals (according to Oettingen)
a. According to Oettingen why are indulging and dwelling typically demotivating?
1) Indulging = only fantasizing about success (e.g., “I’m going to crush this presentation”)
▪ Problem: feels rewarding but lowers motivation to actually prepare because if we are so confident in the outcome, why should be bother trying
▪ Why it doesn’t work: tricks your brain into thinking you’ve already succeeded = little preparation and low efforts
2) Dwelling = only focusing on negative aspects of the current reality and ruminating on obstacles (e.g., “I’m bad at public speaking”)
▪ Problem: increases stress but doesn’t encourage or action because it leads to procrastination
▪ Why it doesn’t work: makes obstacles feel insurmountable, leading to avoidance
3) Mental contrasting = FOSTERS MOTIVATION because it balances optimism with realism
▪ Step 1: imagine achieving your goal (e.g., giving a great presentation)
▪ Step 2: identify obstacles in your way (e.g., public speaking anxiety)
o If success seems likely, you commit and take action
o If success seems unlikely, you disengage and focus on a better goal
- Describe mental contrasting
a. Why is it beneficial?
Mental contrasting = WOOP method
Wish –> Hope you can achieve the goal
Outcome –> imagine the potential benefits of achieving
Obstacle –> Predict the potential obstacles that stand in your way
Plan –> create If-Then contingency plans to maximize success
FOSTERS MOTIVATION because it balances optimism with realism
Mental contrasting also helps process move past regret
–> reduces disappointment, regret and resentment when engaging in counterfactual thinking (“what could have been)
–> Don’t actually think how good it would’ve been but also the challenges that made the goal unachievable.
- How does mental contrasting affect motivation and effort? How do expectations of success factor into the relationship between mental contrasting and motivation/effort
Mental contrasting increases motivation and effort ONLY if you also have high expectations of success.
–> if you do not believe you will succeed, you will disengage from the task (low motivation and effort)
–> if success seems likely, it boosts motivation & effort
–> If success seems unlikely, decreases motivation & effort
Engaging in indulging/rumination leads to moderate effort and motivation, regardless of your expectations of success are.
