Unit 6: Developmental Psychology Flashcards
Developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studied physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
How do women and men differ concerning egg/sperm production?
Women are born with all the immature eggs they will ever have, whereas men produce sperm cells nonstop from puberty
Zygote
a fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
Embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens
- “monster makers”
agents such as chemicals and viruses that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (why women are asked to avoid smoking/alcohol when pregnant)
FAS
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
- physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. in severe causes, it can produce small/disproportionate head and abnormal facial features
Habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus
** children lose interest in repeated exposure to the same toys/actions/sounds
Maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
Infant brain development/memory
- we consciously recall little from before the age of four; despite this, our brain was still processing and storing information
- the brain areas underlying memory (hippocampus, frontal lobes) continue to mature through/during adolescence, and we lose the infantile amnesia that comes with being young
Schema
- a concept or framework that organizes/interprets information
- maturing builds schemas which we use in later experiences
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation
adapting our current understanding/schemas to incorporate new information
Lev Vygotsky
- child development researcher
- emphasized how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment
- focused on scaffolding and zone of proximal development
Scaffolding
a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
Zone of proximal development
the zone between what a child can and cannot do (what they can do with help)
Autism spectrum disorder
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
SENSORIMOTOR
- birth to nearly 2 years old
- experiencing the world through senses and actions
** object permanence, stranger anxiety
PREOPERATIONAL
- 2 to about 6-7 years old
- representing things with words and images: using intuitive reasoning rather than logical
** pretend play, egocentricism
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
- around 7-11 years old
- thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies, and performing arithmetical operations
** conservation, mathematical transformations
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
- around 12 through adulthood
- abstract reasoning
** abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning
Stranger anxiety
a fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress upon separation
Harry Harlow’s attachment study
separating a monkey from it’s mother at birth and observing it’s attachment to a cloth shaped like a mother
- study recognized that intense attachment is not always associated with nourishment
- human attachment is similar; consists of one person providing a secure base from which to explore and a safe haven when stressed that changes with age/development
Critical period
the optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli/experiences produces normal development
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
Secure attachment
demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in their return
Anxious attachment
demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness
Mary Ainsworth’s attachment study
“strange situation” study: studying child-caregiver attachment. A child is places in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child’s reactions are observed
Erikson’s idea of basic trust
A sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy
- formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers; mistrust is formed when this is lacking
Self-concept
our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “who am I?”
Four main parenting styles
Authoritarian: parents are coercive, imposing rules and expecting obedience
Permissive: parents are unrestraining. they are not heavily responsive, set few limits/punishments, and lack demands
Authoritative: (recognized as the most effective parenting style) parents are confrontive, both demanding and responsive
Negligent: parents are uninvolved, entirely disconnected unresponsive and undemanding
Gender vs. sex
gender is the socially influences characteristics by which people identify a man, woman, or something else, and sex is the biologically influenced characteristics by which people are defined as male or female
Aggression vs. relational aggression
Aggression is any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally, and relational aggression is aggression used to intentionally harm someone’s relationship or social standing
Roles/gender roles
a role is a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
gender roles are a set of expected behaviors, attitudes and traits for males or females
Gender-typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Social learning theory on gender-linked behavior
suggests that we learn by observing/imitating other’s gender-based behaviors and link the rewards/punishments that come from that
Gender schema theory on gender-linked behavior
we organize information early in childhood into gender-schemas that influence how we gender-type ourself and grasp/confuse our gender identities
Adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Moral reasoning
the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong
Kholbergs moral development
preconventional level (before age 9): self interest - obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
conventional level (early adolescence): uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
postconventional level (adolescence and beyond): actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles
Criticisms of Kholbergs moral development
his post-conventional stage is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from large societies that prize individualism
Intimacy
the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood
How do peers influence one’s personality?
taste and style, accents and slang, and substance use
How do parents influence one’s personality
quality of life, achievements, and exposure to peer culture
Emerging adulthood
a period from about the age of 18-mid twenties when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults
Erikson’s stages of Psychosocial development
INFANCY (>1)
- trust vs. mistrust; if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
TODDLERHOOD (1-3 years)
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt; toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
PRESCHOOL (3-6)
- initiative vs. guilt; preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (6-puberty)
- competence vs. inferiority; children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
ADOLESCENCE (teen-20s)
- identity vs. role confusion; teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
YOUNG ADULTHOOD (20s to early 40s)
- intimacy vs. isolation; young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40s to 60s)
- generativity vs. stagnation; in middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
LATE ADULTHOOD (late 60s and up)
- integrity vs. dispair; reflecting on his or her life, an older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
Two ways biology influences our gender psychology
- genetically (males and females have differing sex chromosomes)
- physiologically (males and females have differing concentrations of sex hormones, triggering other anatomical differences)
Primary sex characteristics
body structures that make sexual reproduction possible
Secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
X and Y chromosomes in prenatal sexual development
- X X = female
- XY = male
How do our health, neural processing, and memory change as we age?
Health: immune system weakens, accumulation of antibodies throughout lifetime = less short term ailments
Neural processing: our processing speed/reaction time decreases
Memory: brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy, and the blood-brain barrier in the hippocampus breaks down
Neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)
Acquired disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer’s disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse.
- once known as dementia in older adults
Cross-sectional study
research that compares people from different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal study
research that follows and retests the same people over time
“Social clock”
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
