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Classes Taken in the Current School Year > Unit 6 & 7 Genetics, Gene Expression and Biotechnology > Flashcards

Unit 6 & 7 Genetics, Gene Expression and Biotechnology Flashcards

1
Q

Define: Genetics

A

The scientific study of heredity.

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2
Q

Define: Gene

A

The set of information that controls a trait; code in the DNA.

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3
Q

Define: Allele

A

The different forms of a gene.

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4
Q

Define: Dominant

A

An allele thats trait always shows up in an organism when present.

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5
Q

Define: Recessive

A

An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present.

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6
Q

Define: Monohybrid

A

The crossing of parents that are both heterozygous to a trait.

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7
Q

Define: Dihybrid

A

The crossing of parent that are both heterozygous to 2 traits.

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8
Q

Define: P generation

A

The first generation in a cross.

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9
Q

Define: F1 generation

A

The second generation.

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10
Q

Define: F2 generation

A

The third generation.

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11
Q

Define: Homozygous

A

Having 2 identical alleles for a trait.

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12
Q

Define: Heterozygous

A

Having 2 different alleles for a trait.

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13
Q

Define: Genotype

A

An organisms genetic makeup or allele combinations.

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14
Q

Define: Phenotype

A

An organisms physical appearance or visible traits.

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15
Q

Define: Test cross

A

Breeding a homozygous recessive individual with a dominant individual to find out if its hetero or homozygous.

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16
Q

Autosome

A

A chromosome with a that’s the same as its homologous pair and similar in males and females.

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17
Q

Sex chromosome

A

A chromosome that is different in males and females.

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18
Q

Genetics used in primitive civilizations

A
  • Domestication of plants and animals
  • Important demonstration or early genetic engineering lead to agricultural development
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19
Q

Gregor Mendel

A
  • Laid down the foundation for the field of genetics (1800)
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20
Q

Morgan

A

Used fruit flies to identify chromosomes as a region of the cell where genes are stored.

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21
Q

Modern genetics

A
  • Population genetics ~ evolution
  • Oncology, oncogenes and cancer
  • Genetic disease and gene therapy
  • Recombinant technology (ex: crop resistance, animal breeding)
  • DNA finger printing
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22
Q

Inheritance

A

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next.

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23
Q

Mendel’s experiments

A
  • He performed controlled breeding experiments
  • Ex: experimented with monohybrid crosses following inheritance in 2 heterozygous parents.
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24
Q

The principal of dominance mendel said

A

Some factors for a trait show up when present (dominant). Other factors are overpowered by the dominant and only show up when the dominant factor isn’t present.

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25
Q

Dominance today:

A

Factors are alleles of the same gene.

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26
Q

Dominance correction

A

Many traits do not follow dominant and recessive inheritance. These are called non-Mendelian traits.

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27
Q

The Principal of Segregation, Mendel said:

A

Factors for the same trait are separated from each other during the formation of gametes and get rearranged after fertilization.

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28
Q

Segregation today:

A

Alleles for the same gene get separated during meiosis (haploid cells form) and get paired up again during fertilization.

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29
Q

Correction segregation:

A

None

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30
Q

The Principal of Independent Assortment, Mendel said:

A
  • Factors for different traits separate from each other during the formation of gametes and get rearranged again during fertilization.
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31
Q

Independent Assortment today:

A
  • Genes for different traits separate from each other during meiosis and get rearranged again during fertilization.
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32
Q

Independent Assortment correction:

A
  • It is chromosomes not genes that separate from each other, so if 2 genes are on the same chromosome they do not independently assort, they are said to be linked genes and are inherited together.
33
Q

Chi squared test proves:

A

If a null hypothesis is supported by the data or not.

34
Q

Null hypothesis:

A

A hypothesis that states that the examined independent variable does not influence the dependent variable.

35
Q

Null hypothesis in genetic problems:

A

States mode of inheritance and possible outcomes of a cross.

36
Q

Rules of chi squared:

A
  • Only counted values
  • At least 20 counted values
  • Must have null hypothesis
  • Must be able to calculate expected values
37
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

A form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele; this results in a combined phenotype.
Example: red + white = pink

38
Q

Codominance

A

It transpires when both of the contributors of both alleles are visible and do not overpower each other in the phenotype.

39
Q

Lethal alleles

A

Some genotypic combinations are deadly and will not be counted in the live offspring ratio. With today’s medicine many of these traits are not necessarily deadly.

40
Q

Polygenic inheritance

A
  • A simple phenotypic characteristic is inherited by the interaction of at least 2 genes.
    Example: Skin color in humans.
  • The frequency of the traits that follow polygenic inheritance are in a bell curve shape.
41
Q

Locus

A

The position of a gene on a chromosome.

42
Q

Epistasis

A

The phenotypic expression of one gene at one locus that alters that of a gene at a second locus.

43
Q

Epigenetics

A
  • The study of changes in inheritance that is not caused by changes in the DNA
  • Genes can be activated or inactivated
  • Chromosomes can be tightly packed or loosened
44
Q

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

A

Genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis.

45
Q

People

A

Sutton - came up with the theory
Morgan - Proved it with experimentation on fruit flies

46
Q

Traits located on the autosomes…

A

follow autosomal inheritance.

47
Q

Sex chromosomes

A

Chromosomes that are responsible for the determination of the gender.

48
Q

Other organisms have different system of chromosomes:

A

Sometimes

49
Q

Sex-linked

A

Genes on the x and y chromosome.

50
Q

Genetic disorders on x chromosome show up more in males:

A

Genetic disordeson y chromosome on it show up in males.

51
Q

Human pedigrees

A

Chart that follows certain traits over several generations.

52
Q

Autosomal dominant

A

Don’t skip generations the same in males and females.

53
Q

Autosomal recessive

A

Can skip generations the same in males and females.

54
Q

X-Linked dominant

A

Determined by trial and error doesn’t skip generations.

55
Q

X-Linked recessive

A

Can skip generations, usually more males.

56
Q

Y-Linked

A

Every male in the family has the trait.

57
Q

X-Linked recessive vs. Autosomal recessive

A

Look for a daughter with a trait that father does not have to look for clues like that.

58
Q

Biotechnology

A

The use of living systems and organisms to develop useful products.

59
Q

Today, biotechnology is used for…

A
  • New medical cures
  • Increase agricultural yields
  • To find new fuel sources
  • Address various environmental problems
60
Q

Genetically modified organisms (abbreviated as GMOs)

A

Organisms that have had the process of using DNA tools to modify the DNA or organisms to produce useful products.

61
Q

We can genetically modify organisms by…

A
  • Altering the DNA of existing genes to modify proteins coded from the genes
  • Adding a foreign gene to an organism
  • Deleting or turning off existing genes
62
Q

Transgenic organisms

A

Organisms with a foreign gene inserted in the term.

63
Q

Research methods for biotechnology

A

A. DNA sequencing
B. Restriction enzymes
C. Ligation
D. Gel electrophoresis
E. Polymerase chain reaction

64
Q

DNA sequencing is used to determine…

A

The nucleotide sequence of a given gene or an entire organism.

65
Q

DNA sequencing can be used to study (real life example):

A
  • DNA of entire organisms
  • Paternity cases
  • Genetic testing
  • Evolutionary research
66
Q

DNA sequencing steps

A
  1. DNA molecules are cut into fragments.
  2. Fragments are copied many times.
  3. Copies are single strand DNA molecules, so complementary nucleotides are added one at a time.
  4. And electronic monitors detect when which nucleotide was added at each time.
67
Q

Restriction enzymes

A

Special enzymes originally found in bacteria that cut DNA at certain sequences (restriction sites).

68
Q

Sticky ends/Sticky cut

A

When enzymes cut between the base pairs and the nucleotides to make sticky ends.

69
Q

Blunt ends

A

When across the double helix.

70
Q

What can restriction enzymes be utilized for?:

A

Cuts “gaps” in large DNA molecules and new genes are inserted into the DNA.

71
Q

Sticky ends vs. Blunt ends

A

Sticky ends are easier for attaching DNA together.

72
Q

Ligation

A

The process of reassembling DNA fragments by utilizing DNA ligase enzymes.

73
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

The process when DNA from different organisms or sources is assembled by ligation.

74
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

Method that separates large molecules, such as nucleic acids and proteins, on the basis of their size, electric charge and other properties.

75
Q

Process of gel electrophoresis:

A
  • DNA is cut by restriction enzymes, then injected into gel
  • Electric current is run through the gel
  • Molecules are dragged along the gel by the current
76
Q

Polymerase chain reaction (abbreviated as PCR)

A
  • This method is used to amplify genes that scientists are interested in studying.
  • Very fast process
77
Q

Benefits of biotechnology:

A
  • Insert genes into bacteria for cheese and insulin
  • Plants can become, herbicide resistant, bug resistant, grow faster, bigger yields
  • Golden rice has good nutrition
78
Q

Threats of biotechnology:

A
  • Super bugs
  • Disrupts food chain
  • Indigestible material in crops or livestock
  • Ethical issue

Classes Taken in the Current School Year (7 decks)

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