Unit 6 Flashcards by Nick Eaton

The technical term for the production of sex cells in both males and females is ______________?

Gametogenesis

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The process of making sperm cells (i.e. spermatocytes) is specifically called ___________?

Spermatogenesis

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The process of making cells (i.e., oocytes) is specifically called_______?

Oogenesis

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A cell that has two copies of every chromosome is called a _____ cell?

Diploid

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A cell that has only one copy of every chromosome (i.e, half of the normal amount) is called a ________ cell.

Haploid

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_________ is a type of cell division used for growth and repair of tissues. It occurs when one diploid cell duplicates all its chromosomes and organelles before dividing into two identical daughter cells.

Mitosis

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_________ is the type of cell division that only happens in the ovaries or testes, starts with a diploid cell, and produces 1-4 haploid cells (gametes) after two rounds of cell division.

Meiosis

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All diploid human cells contain ________ pairs of chromosomes before starting any kind of cell division.

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The first step of meiosis includes the germ cell going through interphase to duplicate all organelles and chromosomes. This step forms a ______ gamete.

Primary

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Homologous chromosomes align together during prophase I and exchange genetic material to increase genetic diversity in our species. This process of exchanging genes between homologous chromosomes is called ________.

Crossing-over

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In anaphase I, the homologous chromosomes ________, meaning that each member of a homologous pair gets pulled to an opposite side of the dividing cell.

Separate

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At the end of meiosis I, there are two cells that are haploid, but each chromosome still has its duplicate copy attached. These cells are called ______ gametes.

Secondary

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In anaphase II, each sister chromatid will _______, meaning that the centromere holding the two identical chromatid’s together will break.

Split

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For males, the process of meiosis starts with one spermatogonium and divides it into four _____ gametes, which will mature into sperm.

Final Stage

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For females, the process of meiosis starts with one oogonium and divides into only one mature egg cell. The other three cells containing genetic material will become _____ and ultimately disintegrate.

Polar Bodies

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Release of ______ from the hypothalamus in males is pulsatile, meaning that peaks occur every 1.5 hours. This hormone triggers the release of two anterior pituitary hormones.

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

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This anterior pituitary hormone stimulates the Sertoli Cells in the testes to produce androgen binding protein, inhibin, and paracrine signals needed for spermatogenesis.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

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This anterior pituitary hormone stimulates the interstitial cells of Leydig to produce testosterone, which is a critical hormone that supports male secondary sex characteristics and aids in sperm production.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

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The menstrual cycle is actually composed of two separate cycles of events that happen in the ovaries (the ovarian cycle) and the uterus (the uterine cycle). The first half of the ovarian cycle (Days 1 - 14) is called the ____ phase.

Follicular

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During the follicular phase, the level of _____ produced by the anterior pituitary gland increases just a bit and stimulates the development of a new follicle in the ovaries.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

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As that follicle develops between Days 5 - 13, it secretes higher and higher levels of _______.

Estrogen

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Just before ovulation in females, there is a steep increase (or “surge”) of ______ released from the anterior pituitary gland.

Luteinizing Hormone

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After ovulation, the second half of the ovarian cycle (Days 15 - 28) is called the ____ phase.

Luteal

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During the phase named in the previous question, ______ is the dominant ovarian hormone. This hormone is produced by the corpus luteum, which is what remains of the follicle in the ovary.

Progesterone

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The uterine cycle has three subphases. This is the first of those subphases and is triggered by low levels of estrogen and progesterone, which indicate no implantation occurred in the previous menstrual cycle. This subphase therefore removes the old uterine lining during a period of bleeding.

Menses

The second uterine subphase is called the _______. It is stimulated by rising levels of estrogen from the ovaries. It includes a thickening of the uterine lining.

Proliferative Phase

The third uterine subphase is called the _______. It is stimulated by high levels of progesterone from the ovaries. It includes additional thickening of the uterine lining in anticipation of a pregnancy, along with increased vascularization, and depositing of fuel molecules like glycogen and lipids for a potential embryo.

Secretory Phase

This is the structures in the mouth (either under the tongue, under the jaw, or near the jaw hinge) that qualify as accessory digestive organs. They release a liquid containing digestive enzymes (for carbohydrates and lipids only) into the mouth as you chew.

Salivary Glands

This structure is the muscular tube that transports food from the mouth to the stomach.

Esophagus

This structure is the compartment where swallowed food and drink is further combined with digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. This is also the compartment where protein digestion begins.

Stomach

This structure is another accessory digestive organ that is barely visible in this diagram. It is located just inferior and posterior to the structure named in the previous question. This organ has both endocrine and exocrine function. The exocrine secretions (i.e., mucus, bicarbonate, and enzymes) help with digestion in the small intestine.

Pancreas

This structure is a highly coiled section of the digestive tract where the vast majority of biomolecule digestion and absorption occurs.

Small Intestine

This structure is the final compartment of the digestive tract, which absorbs the last remnants of water from the digested food and condenses it into feces.

Large Intestine

This is the terminal section of the structure of the large intestine. Distension here will trigger the defecation reflex. Better find a restroom quick!

Rectum (poopy butthole)

This structure is your largest internal organ. It filters and detoxifies the blood. It is also an important storage site for glycogen, iron, and many vitamins (e.g., A, D, E, K, and B12). This structure also qualifies as an accessory digestive organ since it synthesizes a substance called bile, which aids in the emulsification and digestion of lipids.

Liver

This structure is the structure that temporarily stores the bile mentioned in the previous question. Under the influence of hormones, it will release that bile into the small intestine when you eat a meal containing lipids.

Gallbladder

______ is the chemical and mechanical breakdown of foods into smaller units that can be taken across the intestinal epithelium into the body.

Digestion

___ is the active or passive transfer of substances from the lumen of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract to the extracellular fluid.

Absorption

_____ is movement of material in the GI tract as a result of muscle contraction.

Motility

_______ refers to the transepithelial transfer of water and ions from the extracellular fluid to the digestive tract lumen as well as to the release of substances synthesized by GI epithelial cells.

Secretion

The ________ helps to coordinate digestive function

Enteric Nervous System

______ is progressive waves of muscle contraction that move from one section of the GI tract to the next, just like human "waves" that ripple around a football stadium.

Peristalsis

Fat is not absorbed directly into the circulation like monosaccharides and amino acids. Rather these lymph vessels are the route by which fats enter the circulation.

Lacteals

____ attack peptide bonds in the interior of the amino acid chain and break a long peptide chain into smaller fragments.

Endopeptidases

____ release single amino acids from peptides by chopping them off the ends, one at a time.

Exopeptidases

Carbohydrates must be digested down to the level of _____, like glucose, fructose and galactose, to be absorbed into the blood.

Monosaccharides

Proteins must be digested down to their monomer level, called ____, or small polymers (di- and tri-peptides) to be absorbed into the blood.

Amino Acids

Ingested triglycerides will be digested down to ____ (the monomer of lipids) and monoglycerides before being absorbed.

Fatty Acids

This hormone targets the Beta cells of the pancreas and stimulates insulin release. It also inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion.

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

This signal molecule is stimulated by acid entering the small intestine and targets the pancreas and stomach. It stimulates bicarbonate release and inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion.

Secretin

This hormone is stimulated by fatty acids when they enter the small intestine and it targets the gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach. It stimulates gallbladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion. It also inhibits gastric emptying and acid secretion.

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

This hormone targets the ECL cells and parietal cells in the stomach. It is stimulated by peptides and amino acids in the stomach, but also by neural reflexes. It stimulates gastric acid secretion and mucosal growth.

Gastrin

This hormone targets the endocrine pancreas and is stimulated by a mixed meal that includes carbohydrates or fats entering the small intestine. It stimulates insulin release and inhibits glucagon release.

Glucagon-like Peptide 1 (GLP-1)

This hormone targets the gastric and intestinal smooth muscle. It is stimulated by fasting and stimulates the migrating motor complex.

Motilin

Control of eating is a very complex topic and not fully understood. However, the _____ seems to have two centers that control feeding and satiety in humans and other mammals.

Hypothalamus

In animal experiments, damage to the ____ results in cessation of eating. These results have led to the conclusion that this part of the structure named above stimulates food intake behaviors.

Feeding Center

If the ____ is destroyed, animals overeat and become obese, leading to the conclusion that this part of the structure named in Question 1 stops food intake by inhibiting the feeding center.

Satiety Center

The ____ theory states that glucose metabolism by hypothalamic centers regulates food intake.

Glucostatic

The ____ theory proposes that a signal from the body's fat stores to the brain modulates eating behavior so that the body maintains a particular weight.

Lipostatic

This hormone is synthesized in adipocytes. As fat stores increase, adipose cells secrete more of this hormone, and food intake decreases.

Leptin

This signal molecule, on the other hand, stimulates food intake and is inhibited by the hormone in the previous question.

Neuropeptide Y

This signal molecule is secreted from the stomach during fasting and increases feelings of hunger.

Ghrelin

This measurement is the simplest way to determine if someone is within a healthy weight range given their current height and weight. However, this measure is also potentially inaccurate since it does not distinguish between fat mass and muscle mass, and does not consider age, sex, or ethnicity, which are all important factors in health.

Body Mass Index (BMI)

One ____ is the amount of energy needed to raise 1 liter of water by 1 degree Celsius.

Kilocalorie

The measurement mentioned in the previous question is also the same as the ____ which is what we see on nutritional labels for the foods we eat.

Calorie

A person's ____ indicates the minimum amount of energy needed to maintain all normal cellular functions. It would be measured best as a person sleeps, but that can be difficult to achieve.

Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

An alternative to measuring the metabolic rate (BMR) is to measure it after a 12-hour fast in a person that is awake, but resting. This is called a ____.

Resting Metabolic Rate

One way to measure metabolic rate is to measure ____ consumption since this molecule is needed for aerobic respiration.

Oxygen

Another way to measure metabolic rate is the measure ____ production since this is a byproduct of aerobic respiration.

Carbon Dioxide

The sum of all chemical reactions in the body is called ____.

Metabolism

Reactions that synthesize large molecules from smaller ones are called ____ pathways.

Anabolic

Reactions that break large molecules into smaller ones are called ____ pathways.

Catabolic

The synthesis of glycogen from glucose is called ______.

Glycogenesis

Excess glucose is converted to fat by the process of _____.

Lipogenesis

When plasma glucose levels fall, the body converts glycogen to glucose through the process of ____.

Glycogenolysis

If glucose intake is low, amino acids can be converted into glucose through the pathway known as _____.

Gluconeogenesis

When fasted, proteins can be broken down and converted into intermediates that enter either glycolysis or the Citric Acid Cycle. The first step in that process is called ____, which includes removal of amino groups from the amino acids liberated by endo- and exopeptidases.

Deamination

Breaking down of triglycerides into monomers that can be used for energy production is called ____.

Lipolysis

The fatty acids produced by the process named in the previous question are converted into acetyl CoA by a process called ____.

Beta-Oxidation

When someone is overweight, they are more prone to developing type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and high blood pressure. The combination of these three conditions is now formally diagnosed as ____.

Metabolic Syndrome

This hormone is released from the adrenal cortex and increases blood glucose. Its secretion peaks in the morning and diminishes at night. It is also referred to as the "stress hormone" because physical and emotional stress will also lead to its increased production and release.

Cortisol

This syndrome occurs when a patient produces abnormally high levels of cortisol.

Cushing's Syndrome

This syndrome occurs when a patient produces abnormally low levels of cortisol.

Addison's Disease

Hormones produced by this gland also have long term effects on oxidative metabolism, perhaps by increasing ion transport across cellular and mitochondrial membranes. The hormones produced here are also the only molecules in the body that use the mineral iodine.

Thyroid Gland

If the gland in the previous question is over-stimulated by the anterior pituitary, it will grow and form a large lump on the neck called a _____.

Goiter

Growth hormone (GH) controls body growth, especially during the teenage years. This disorder occurs when GH is high during adulthood, and results in lengthening of the jaw and coarsening of facial features.

Acromegaly

Severe growth hormone deficiency in childhood leads to ____.

Dwarfism

Calcium balance is also very important to overall health. This term refers to when Ca2+ levels are abnormally low.

Hypocalcemia

By contrast, when Ca2+ levels are abnormally high, this condition arises.

Hypercalcemia

There are three hormones that help to regulate Ca2+ levels in the body. One is produced by four small glands that sit adjacent to the gland mentioned in Question 30. Its main function is to increase plasma Ca2+ concentrations by acting at the bones, kidney, and intestine.

Parathyroid Hormone

This hormone, produced by the C cells of the thyroid gland when Ca2+ levels are too high, has the opposite effects as the hormone mentioned in the previous question.

Calcitonin

This hormone, also known as Vitamin D, also increases calcium absorption in the intestines.

Calcitriol

What are the two hormones produced by the ovaries?

Progesterone and Estrogen

What 3 types of estrogen hormones and when are they secreted?

1.) Estradiol: After puberty, but not pregnant 2.) Estriol: During pregnancy 3.) Estrone: After menopause

What hormone stimulates further development of endometrium in case of pregnancy?

Progesterone

Cues by LH to produce androgens that are converted to estrogen by granulosa cells

Thecal Cells

Which hormone is primary stimulus for ovulation?

Luteinizing Hormone

Expression of SRY gene in some emryonic cells but not others. Possible types: One ovary one testis, Ovotestes (part ovary, part testis on both sides), Ovotestes one one side only

True Hermaphroditism

Polymer form of fats? Monomer? Held together by?

Triglycerides Monomer: 3 fatty acids, glycerol Held together by ester bonds

polymer of carbohydrates? Monomer? Held together by?

Polysaccharides: Glycogen, starch Building blocks: Glucose, fructose, galactose Held together by glycosidic bonds

Polymer form of proteins? Monomer? Held together by?

Polypeptides. Building blocks: Amino acids Held together by peptide bonds

Unit 6 Flashcards

(101 cards)