Unit 5 - Social Differentiation

Question 1

Ascribed status vs achieved status

Answer 1

Ascribed status is “by accident” of birth: gender, age, ethnicity, caste

Achieved status when efforts have contributed like: occupdation, education, political affiliation or ideology.

Less clear cut are:

• religion (of parents or own decision?)
• class (in the UK for example)

Question 2

Two ways we can be part of a social group (Stuwart, 2008)

Answer 2

1. We have chosen to be part of that group

2. Others see us as being part of that group and relate to us accordingly.

Question 3

Social Groups can be defined by:

Answer 3

1. People with political power ot religious or social influence (example: indirect ruling in the colonial times)
2. The group members themselves - often it gives them a sense of belonging or they have a shared grievance.

Question 4

Belonging to a social group can affects one’s life in 4 ways

Answer 4

1. Social interactions, access to networks (social capital) and the opportunities that these can open up.
2. Government policies may generate benefits for members of a particular group
3. Expectation to adopt certain roles and behaviours. For example ethnic minorities and religious groups
4. Discrimination (incl. Legislation that disadvantages)

Question 5

Two forms of discrimination

Answer 5

1. Formal - legislation (no voting rights for women)
2. Informal (not willing to give job to somebody from certain group as you expect them to not be reliable or capable.

In the extreme cases discrimination becomes persecution (vervolging)

Question 6

EU definition of “Social exclusion”

Answer 6

A process through which individuals or groups are wholly or partially excluded from full participation in the society in which they live.

Ruggeri Laderchi et al (2003)
Definition of the EU on social exclusion

Question 7

What does “full participation” in society entail?

Answer 7

For example:

• being part of local community life
• participation in civic affairs (voting, decision making)
• benefitting from the opportunities for eduction, health care etc.
• being gainfully employed, paying taxes
• consuming goods and services (including leisure opportunities)

Question 8

People might be socially disadvantages because of:

Answer 8

1. Ascribed status
2. Labour status (example: bonded labour)
3. outsider status
4. Health status
5. Poverty status
6. Geographical location

Question 9

Exclusion and causes of exclusion

Answer 9

Exclusion is stronger than “left out”: there are people or forces taht keep the excluded out.

Focus on the interaction of social and economic factors that create poverty

Causes of exclusion:

1. Ignorance
2. Preference
3. (Active) Distrimination

Question 10

The dynamics of social exclusion

Answer 10

Social exclusion is a dynamic concepts, social factors interact with and reinforce economic disadvantage. It is generated by a combination of social disadvatage plus low income and/or capabilities.

Vicious circle:

• social exclusion
• lower capabilities
• poverty

Question 11

The definition of holizontal inequality

Answer 11

Seeks to primarily explain differences in average livelihood outcomes between social groups

(Kabeer, 2010): group-based disadvantages

(Stewart, 2008)
Inequality between culturally defined groups or groups with shared identities.
They are called horizontal to distinguish them from inequalities among individuals, which we refer to as vertical inequalities.
These identities may be formed by religion, ethnic ties or racial affiliations, or other salient factors which bind groups of people togehter.

Question 12

Explaining horizontal inequalities dynamics (figure)

Answer 12

Political power
Economic (dis)advantages ——- Investment in capabilities
Consumption ——– outcomes ——–capabilities

Question 13

Two reasons for the continuous dynamics of horizontal inequalities

Answer 13

(Tuwart and Langer, 2008)

1. The asset holding of the average member of a social group
2. The average returns that a member of a group can obtain from a particular asset.

Question 14

What is foundational shock?

Answer 14

(Stewart and Langer, 2008)

It generates inequality between groups and then will be perpetuated and increase over time.

Example: the impact of colonial policies in favouring one group over another.

Question 15

What are extractive institutions?

Answer 15

(Acemoglu and Robinson, 2013)

The ruling elite has used its control of political power to further its own economic ends, with the resulting economical power serving to reinfoce its political power. (Again, colonialism is a good example)

Question 16

What is adverse incorporation?

Answer 16

Social disadvantage can mean that the terns on which they engage in labour or other markets are extremely unfavourable:

People who are desperate for work may accept very poor pay, exploitation even. (And lack of employment rights) —
Reservation position.

Therefore individuals/groups realise low returns on their available assets.

Question 17

What is “natural” adverse incorporation?

Answer 17

Example: geographic factors like remoteness and low agro-ecological potential.

Remoteness: people face higher prices when buying, lower prices when selling, higher climate risk, thin markets (no traders to invest).

Overcoming geographical isolation requires public and private investment.

Question 18

How does adverse incorporation contribute to horizontal inequalities?

Answer 18

The average member of a particular group may engage in certain types of markets on unfavourable terms due to:

1) a form of discrimination (example in employment practises)
2. Geographic disadvantage, due to remoteness

Question 19

How does adverse incorporation contribute to social exclusion?

Answer 19

For groups:

• discrimination
• geographic disadvantages

For individuals a weak bargaining position in markets could come from being in debt, old, disable or being a mother. Also the above mentioned reasons. Any of these could result in them being unable to engage in activities considered normal in their society.

Question 20

The dimensions of social differences:

Answer 20

• racial
• ethnic
• religious
• caste

But also (overarching) social disadvantages:

• gender
• age
• disability

Question 21

The triple gender roles:

Answer 21

A great burden of labour on women, reducing their ability to earn income and limits their voice in decision making.

1. Reproductive activities
2. Productive activities (paid and unpaid)
3. Community activities

Question 22

De jure or de facto female headed hh

Answer 22

De jure: widows, divorcees, seperation

De facto: where male is absent for most of the time (Migration)

Question 23

The vulnerability of children:

Answer 23

• disadvantages at early ahge can have lasting impact physical and psychologically
• malnutrician
• orphans/vernerable children due to desease or conflict
• child headed hh
• abuse or exploitation (sexual, child soldiers etc)

Question 24

The biggest issue facing the eldery poor:

Answer 24

• absence of income security
• inadequate family or social support
• poor health combined with inadequate health care

(Barrientos et al, 2003)

Question 25

Approaches to tackling exclusion:

Answer 25

• confronting both social discrimination and economic disadvantages
• create political will
• hold state accountable
• provide the right information
• strengthening the relevant modules in major nationally representative surveys to enable improved policy development
• enacting right to information legislation

Question 26

Tackling discrimination

Answer 26

1. Anti-discrimination legislation:
   - legislation promoting equal opportunities, affirmative action or mositive discrimination policies
   - other legislation that confers legal rights on previously discriminated against groups
2. Public awareness campaigns to increase understanding of and compliance with legislation.

Question 27

Expanding economic opportunities for the socially excluded

Answer 27

1. Broad based growth is the best
2. Progressive tax
3. Land redistribution programmes
4. Giving women land rights
5. Targeted micro finance
6. Extension of pension entitlements
7. Cash transfer programmes

Question 28

Social exclusion is the product of intersecting inequalities:

Answer 28

• cultural devaluation of certain groups, deeming them inferior to others in ways which undermine their sense of self-worth and agency
• their disadvantaged position in the distribution of valued resources, services and opportunities within their society
• location where efforts yield poorer returns
• denial of voice and influence in the decisions that affect their lives and communities
• interaction between these, which leads to persistence over time.

Question 29

Horizontal Inequalities is expected to persist due to 5 reasons (Stewart and Langer, 2008) (key reading)

Answer 29

1. Unequal rates of accumulation, due to inequalities in incomes and imperfect markets
2. Dependence of the returns to one type of capital on the avialability of other types
3. Asymmetries in social capital
4. Present and post discrimination by individuals and nongovernmental institutions
5. Political inequalities leading to discrimination by Governments.

Question 30

Factors and policies that help prevent persistent HIs are

Stewart and Langer, 2008) (key reading

Answer 30

1. Processes that reduce the tightness of group boundaries so that people can switch
2. Processes that reduce inequalities in capital accumulation (or further towards affirmative actions)
3. Processes to improve returns to different types of capital.
4. Offsetting asymmetries in the quality of social capital - bridging social capital for poorer groups.

Question 31

The positive effects of educating girls:

Answer 31

1. Likely to marry later
2. Likely to have fewer children
3. More likely to immunise children
4. School attendence children
5. Clinic visits in case of illness

Question 32

Factors that influence the bargaining position of a wife in intra-hh bargaining with her husband

Answer 32

1. Prevailing social norms regarding gender roles
2. Education level of the wife
3. Prevailing laws governing ownership of assets, such as land
4. Whether she is the first, second or third wife